OF
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr,
AND
JAMES D. DANA,
IN CONNECTION WITH
PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE,
PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE,
DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK.
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XXII.—NOVEMBER, 1856.
WITH THREE PLATES AND A MAP.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
NEW YORK: G. P, PUTNAM & CO.
eee eee
'B. HAYES, PRINTER,
MameauR! BOTANICAL
GaReEn LIBRARY
we .
ii
Baie
oe
i me,
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXII.
NUMBER LXIV.
Art. I. Notice of Microscopic Forms found in the soundings of
the Sea of Kamtschatka—with a plate ; by Prof. J. W. Barney,
II. Examination of two Sugars (Panoche and Pine ee from
California ; by Samuet W. Jounson, -
III. On the Composition of the Muscles in the pee Serie
by MM. Vatenciennes and Frémy, - - :
IV. A Review of the Classification of Crustacea with velerawes
to certain principles of Classification; by James D. Dana, -
V. On the Mode of testing Building Materials, and an account of
the Marble used in the Extension of the United States =
itol; by Professor Josepn Henry, - -
VI. On the Occurrence of the Ores of Iron in the ree a ace :
by J. D. Wuirney, - : - :
VII. Obituary of Professor Zadock Kbatjobes - wih sped
VIII. On the Influence of the Solar Radiation on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric ier
by J. H. Giapsronsg, Ph.D., F.R.S., - - -
IX. Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain ihe most
practicable and economical route for a Railroad from the
Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, -
X. Five New Mineral Species; by Prof. Cuartes v. damien
XI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxtis—Report on the his-
tory of the manufacture of Artificial Soda, 99.—Manufac-
ture of Chinese Porcelain, 101.—Peculiar arrangement of a
Voltaic Battery : The natural state of Hippuric Acid, 102.—
Astronomical news, 103.—Equatorial Telescope: Zenith
Telescope: Stereoscopic experiment: Use of brine in
food, 104
1
i @
lv CONTENTS.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
gemvod ew Physics.—On the production of very high temperatures, 105.—On a new
ming ether and its homulogues: On the equivalent of antimony: On the —
detection * phosphorus in cases of ens! 107. Sirreme = = Specific
—— of —— = nitrogen p om ts and
selenium, 108.
n Earthquakes in California from 1812 to 1855, by J. B. Trasx, 110.—Geo-
covered by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the Lands of the Judith me Nebraska Terri-
tory, by Joszrpu Lerpy, M.D., 118.—Notice of a new Fossil G belon siti to the
family Blastoidea, from the Devonian strata near Louisville, iy. fe es B. F. Saumarp,
.D., and L. P. Yanpexu, M.D., 120.—Reptilian Remains in the New Red Sandstone
of Pennsylvania, by I. Lea, 122.—On the composition of the Water of the Delaware
River, by Henry Wurrz, 124.--On the successive changes of the kbemwp of Serapis,
Sir Cuarxtes LYELL, a 126.—A Geological Reconnoissance of the State of .
Tennessee, by James M. Sarrorp, 129.—Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Strata of
Ohio “Cheabeces Fossils of Neividbar 133.
Botany and Zoology.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, London, 134.
—Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 135.—Sexual reproduction in Alge, 136.—Martius :
i '7.—Prof. W
Dinornis, 138.—A new species of turkey from Mexico, 139
Astronomy.—New Planets: Elements of the Planet Letitia, 140.
iscellaneous Intelligence —Ozone, 140.—On Ozone in the Atmosphere, by W. B.RocEers,
141—The Tides at Ponape, or Ascension Island of the Pacific Occan, by L. Guuick, _
D., 142.—On a peculiar case of Color Blindness, by J. Tynpau, F.R.S., 143.— _
Infirinaiton to Students visiting Europe, 146.—Geographical Society at Paris, 148—A —
Table showing the times of opening and closing of the Mississippi River, by T. S. Par-
vin: Chemical Technology or Chemistry in its application to Arts and Manufactures,
by Dr. Epmunp Ronaxps and Dr. ens Ricuarpson, 149.—Western Academy 0
iattiral Sciences, Cincinnati, O.: American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence: Mantell’s Medals of Creation : *isAbabtlons of the Connecticut State Agricul-
tural Society, for the year 1855: The Art of Perfumery, and Method of obtaining the
Odors of Plants, by G. W. Septimus Presse, 150.—Obituary.—Death of Dr. James G.
Percival, 150.—The late Dr. John C. Warren, 151.—Daniel Sharpe, Esq., 152.
NUMBER LXV.
Arr. XII. On the Measurement of the Pressure of Fired Gun- ee
powder in its Practical apcieesae - Witiiam E. Woop-
BRIDGE, M.D., . - -
XIII. Description of the Sis ceone process saskieea for the
Photo-Meteorographic Registrations at the Radcliffe Obser-
vatory ; by Wituiam Crookes, Esq., - - 16
CONTENTS. v
XIV. On a Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle er
Skye, Scotland; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D., - - :
XV. On the Application of the Mechanical est of Heat to
the Steam Engine; by R. Crausivus, ee 180
XVI. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States; by
Asa Gray, - a
XVII. Letter on the it ai of Practical Geology of “Gi
Britain ; by Sir Ropericx I. Murcuison,
XVIII. Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with shoot ct fe
Species found in Middle igen by Prof. J. M. Sar-
ForD, A.M., - - “ - : - 236
| XIX. A new Fossil Shell in = eae 68 River Sandstone ;
by E. Hitcncock, Jr, - 239
XX. On the Eruption at Hawaii; by Bi, Tivs Oeil - - 240
XXI. On the Purification of ee pepacaticl ; by M. Er-
nest NickLés, - 244
XXII. Third Supplement to Dana’ s ‘isiaidays ; by the Ait, 246
XXII[. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickuis—Academy of
Sciences—Death of M. Binet: Agricultural Universal Exhi-
bition: Fecula of the Horse-chestnut, 264.—Astronomy :
View of a part of the surface of the Moon, 265.—Meteor-
ological System of France, 266.—Inundations : Electricity
: —Substitute for the copper wire in the construction of He-
s lices, 267.—Effects with Ruhmkorff’s Apparatus of Induc-
: tion: Electric Chronometers: Gas and Steam Manometer
Alarm: On a Cause of Atmospheric Electricity, 268.—
Bibliography, 269. —
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—Some experiments in Electro physiology, by Prof. MatrTrvcct,
270.—Selenium : Iodine, 271
veined and Geology.—Meteoric Iron of Thuringia, 271. —Meteoric Iron of Cape of
Good Hope: Meteoric Stone of Mezé-Madaras in Siebenburg: On the Volcanoes of
aehain Italy, 272.—On the Isthmus of Suez, by M Renavp, 273.—On the Mines of
Mineral Coal in Peru, by M. E. pe Rivero, 274.--Waters of Lake Ooroomiah, by
Heney Wirt, 276 —On the Koh-i-Noor Diamond, 278.—On the origin of Greensand
and its furmation in the Ocean of the present epoch, by Prof. J. W. BarLey, 230. —
[See also, p. 296.]
- Botany and Zoology.—Wild Potatoes in New Mexico and Western Texas, 284.—Notes
alved Entomostraca: Cum eee 235 eorgtee Maderensia, or Insects
” of the Maderian Group, by T. Vernon Woutastos, M.A., F.R.S.: On the Variation
| of Species with especial reference to the mes, pea ba an inquiry into the Na-
, © ture of Genera, by the same, 236..--On e Fresh water Entomostraca of South
: America, by Joun Lussock, Esq., F.Z.S
on Paleozoic Biv
vi CONTENTS.
stron Stats of August 10, 1856.—Astronomical Observatory at the —
University of 5 alae 290.
Miscellaneous {ntelligence.—Observations on the climates of California, by GEORGE
BaRTLETT, —Apparatus for taking specific gravity, b sts. ECKFELDT and
Dusors, 294.—Discovery of Paleozoic Fossils in Eastern Massachusetts, by Professor
Rogers, 296.--Hailstorm in Guilford County, N. C., 298.—Monks Island or
Colombian Guano, by Dr. A. S. Prego, 299.—On the Monks Island Guano, by Dr.
Es, 300.—Neo-Macropia: Artificial light for taking photographs, 300.—Wa-
ters of the Dead Sea: Density of the a of the Caspian Sea, by A. Morrrz:
raphy, by J. P. Lesuey, se Son A Treatise on Land Surveying, by Professor W. M. a
Givvesriz, A.M.: Annals of the peccitaaiad Observatory of Harvard College, 302.
--Manual of Blowpipe. ‘lay sis, for the use of Students, by Prof. Winuiam Ex- :
pErHorst: Notices of new Publications, 303. i
NUMBER LXVI.
Page.
Art. XXIV. On American Geological History : Address before
the American Association for the Advancement of eae
August, 1855, by James D. Dana, - 30) j
XXV. On the Plan of Development in the Geological Hisibey of "a
North America, with a map; by James D. Dana, - - 335
XXVI-° Re-determination of the Atomic Mei of Lithium ; by
Prof. J. W. Mayet, - -
XXVII. On the Relations of the Fossil Fishes of he Bacctton
of Connecticut and other Atlantic States to the Liassic and
Oolitic Periods; by W, C, Reprrexp, - -
XXVIII. On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat
to the Steam Engine; by R. Crausivs, -
XXIX. Examination of the Meteoric Iron from Kivi, Maen :
by W. J. Tayor, - - . :
XXX. On the Heat in the Sun’s ae ; “ cn roid - S172
XXXI. Circumstances 2d the Heat of the Sun’s Rays; by
Eunice Foorr, — - - -
XXXII. Review of a portion of the Geologist oe of the United
States and British Provinces Y Jules Marcou ; “2 WILtiam
P, Buake,~ -
XXXII. On New Fossil Corals pote North Guatigg, by E.
Emmons, - é ”
CONTENTS, vii
XXXIV. Description of an Isopod Crustacean from the Antarctic
Seas, with Observations on the New South Shetlands; PY
James Eteuts.—With two plates, - 391
XXXV. Description of a large Bowlder in the Drift of Kabiseit
Massachusetts, with parallel strie upon four sides; by Pro-
fessor Epwarp Hircncocx, - . . : - 397
ae SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
Chemistry and Physics.—On the wave lengths of the most refrangible rays of light in the
Interference Spectrum, 400.——On the connection between the theorem of the equiva-
pra of formic fi cat the determination of chlorine by titri-
among Solutions, and the means of representing them, by Dr. GuapsTonr, 412.—On
: several new methods of detecting Strychnia and Brucia, by T. Horsxey, 413
Geology.—On the Spongeous Origin of the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk Formation, by
J.S. Bowersank: On some Paleozoic Star fishes, compared with Living Forms, by
J. W. aeerens age —On - nichts ee - we Earth, by Prof. Hennessy, 416.
the
I ies, by J. W. Sate
—On
417.—On the Bone Beds of the Upper: Ludlow Rock, and the base of the Old Red Sand-
stone URCHISON, 418. sil Mammal (Stereognathus ooliticus)
from the Stonesfield Slate, by Prof. Owrn, ti —On the Dichodon cuspidatus,
Upper Eocene of the Isle of Wight and Hordwell, Hants, by P Nn, 420.—On a
range of Volcanic Islets to the Southeast of Japan, A. G. Finpuay, 421.—On the
n
_ New Red Sandstone Formation of Pennsylvania, vd Isaac Lea, 422.—Descriptions of
: New as of Acephala and Gasteropoda, from the Tertiary SobeumtSocte of Nebraska
tory, with some general remarks on the cacy of the Pagel about the sources
*y he Missouri River, by F. B. Meek and F. V. ponange M.D.,
and —AlIph. DeCandolle hi se, ou Exposition
des Faites ‘cfg et des Lois concernant fe. Distribution Gsiieaphique des ne
de l’'Epoque Actuelle, 429.—Origin of the Embryo in Plants, 432—Bentham, Note
Loganiacee, 433.—The Flowers of the Pea-Nut, 435—Martius, Flora Diatienais: : L
R. Tulasne, Monographia Monimiacearum, 436.—Chloris oe Essai d’une Flore de
la Region Alpine des Cordilléres de Padecigle du Sud, par H. A. Weppe.t, M.D. :;
Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, by Prof. Asa Gray, 437.--Report
on the present state of our knowledge of the Mollusca of California, by Rev. P. Car-
PENTER, 438.—On the Vital Powers of the Spongiade, by Mr. Bowersanx, 439.—
Gar-pikes, 440.
“ara —New Planets, Harmonia, 440,—Daphne : Isis, 441,
Bae Se ae
Miscellaneous Intelligence —American Association for the Advancement of Science, 441.
= Meteor of July 8th, by W. Sprtuman, 448.—-Sulphuric Acid Barometer: Can-
Obi
: British
Selina, 449,--Geology of the Pacific and other regions visited by the U. S. Explor-
_ing Expedition under C. Wilkes, U. S. N., in the years 1838-1842, by James D. Dana:
viii CONTENTS.
A Chronological Table of Cyclonic Hurricanes, by ANDRES Rents 452,——!
of some Remains of Fishes from the Carboniferous and Devo n Formations of the”
mutes — by J. J. eices ae M.A., F.R.S.: Fossils of pase Carolina, by sti
Reicheenstlt, bidNopiewske Darstellung der Sisinkohlen-foration in sachaok®
i H
Das Normal Verhiiltniss der chemischen und morphologischen Proportionen, von ADOLF
ZEIs1NG, 154.—Principles of Chemistry, by Prof. Joun A. Porter, M.A., M.D., 455.
List of Works, 455.
Index, 456.
ERRATA.
_P. 1, line 2 from bottom, for *Dictyopyxis read Dictyopyxis; 1. 4 from bottom, for Dicla- —
read *Dicladia : p- 2, ‘lines | and 2 from top, for *Coscinodiscus, read Cos cinodiseus 5
‘ 2 Eg ey for Rhizosolenia, read *Rhizosolenia ; 1. + from top, for Diffloga, read * Dif-
16 from top, for Eucyrtidium, read *Eucyrtidium, in both c
[SECOND SERIES.]
XIL—On the Measurement of the
powder in its Practical Applications;
‘brine,
ee
154 WL. We vbr idge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. a
othe, iM
a
oem
aga
ete
_sive rupture to time are but imperfectly known. ’
The following experiment seems to show that the extreme —
force of gunpowder fired in small quantities does not exceed ~
6200 atmospheres. I enclosed in a hollow cylinder of cast-steel —
14 inch in exterior diameter and 4 inch in diameter interiorly, —
20 grains of Hazzard’s Kentucky rifle powder, which filled, —
loosely, the cavity. This was fired by a flash of powder péne- —
trating through the aperture of a valve (of steel) opening inward, ~
but designed to prevent the escape of gas outward. ‘The cylin- ~
der was not ruptured, and being put under water, no gas wai
found to escape. (The weight of the instrument was too
to test the loss of gas by my scales.) On pressing in the valve
by means of a screw, an abundance of gas escaped, carryin
with it the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. The seat of the valve
was found to remain eat a fact which when compared wi
calculated strength of the cylinder would be equal to an inte
ressure of about 93000 lbs. per square inch, or 6200 atm
_ which od pressure was restrained, a piezometer* which by regis-
= e compression of the oil which it contained, should
indicate the pressure ,to which it was exposed. The piezometer
used in the experiments is a small cylindrical vessel of steel,
inclosing a quantity of oil which receives the pressure of the
fluid by which it may be surrounded seer the medium of a
point, which, when the mri is ee makes a.line on
ie he
the stem, equal in length to the distance through which the pis- “
partial rotation of the piston, after the adjustment of the quantity
of oil, inscribes a transverse line on the stem, from which to
measure the one denoting the compression. The len ngth of the
mark is measured under the microscope by means of a rule divi-
ded into ;,';zths of an inch. The details of the construction of
at
and graduated tube. The scale upon the tube was
; marked ed ym means of a ere -machine, and the capacities of
' re equal, so far as determined by a careful exam-
umns of sehen, of different lengths. The
capac oe vision was equal to one part in 3762-2 of the
‘ Yolupes of the oil at 60° Fahr. To the bore of the tube (0:038
diameter) was fitted an iron piston, packed by a ring of
ercny occupying -a groove turned in its edge. This arrange-
ent was found to hee accurate observation, wg to answer its
irpose well in all respects. The instrument was enclosed in a
strong tubular receiver, having windows of athay throng which
it could be inspected. The windows are truncated cones, having
their bases inward, and are fitted to conical cavities in opposite
of the receiver. A rack and pinion, worked by a little
assing through the side of the receiver, serve to bring :
He use of the sabe piezometer to say iia Brrr Foskowe the measurement of
W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 155
oe
W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder. 157
due to the elevation of temperature mentioned, than that pro-
duced by the same force slowly applied. The actual amount of
this difference has not been ascertained, but data which lack the
recision necessary to exact results, indicate that the correction
ue to this cause, which increases with both depression of tem-
perature, and increase of pressure, is not unimportant. No
attempt has been made however, to introduce this correction into
he results subsequently presented of the experiments with the
piezometer. The subject has been reserved in hope of future
ments, for which apparatus has been partially prepared. .
the fall of 1852 a piezometer was constructed on the plan .
which has been described, and was used, to test its working, for
a few firings, in a4 pdr. gun at Perth Ambo
1853, assistance was granted me from the . 8. Ordnance De-
partment for testin my plan, and the subject was referred to
ajor Alfred Mordecai, with whom I had the pleasure and
honor to be associated in making the experiments thus author-
ized, which, however, on account of various hindrances, were
not undertaken until the winter of 1854-5.
i, ee"
ae ah ee
to Ae it Jape on. ‘ied pereton the explosion, was attached
b screwing to the bottom of the bore of the gun, occupying a
_ place in the centre of the charge, but the screw was twice bro-
en o * and this mode of _— the instrument, which was orig-
inally adopted to avoid injuring the gun so as to render it un-
serviceable, was exchang near the Ho man
The new elec was e ollow plug of steel
: ed into th of the sud so that the cavity of the plug
“shaban ee with the bore of the gun. A lea ther case sur-
rounded the instrument to protect it against injury from the
‘shock of firing, and the remaining space within the nig: of
the plug was filled with oil, which was retained b
cork or leather loosely closing the communication wi the en
This arrangement was used in all the subsequent firing with
_eannon, and was entirely satisfactory. The length of the pie-
- Zometer was 2°5 inches, jts diameter 0:7 inch, and the diameter
of its piston 0°252 in, "The adjustment of the quantity of oil in
158 W. E. Woodbridge on the Pressure of Fired Gunpowder.
the instrument was made at the temperature at which the gun
was fired. In the brass gun several holes were made for receiv-.
ing the instrument at different distances (specified in the table)
from the bottom of the bore. When not in use, these holes
were closed by plugs fitted to eac
In the experiment with the taasices barrel, a part of the
breech-end, in the rear of the charge, was made to serve as a
substitute for the cavity of the screw plug, in receiving the pie,
zometer. ;
The experiments.are to be regarded altogether as peering ary
trials, but they are not, I hope, without interest and value. The
following table presents the most interesting of the results,
| Btperiments on the pressure id Jired Gunpowder,
Bs
e Powillt. Shot. Dist’nce Hy
piezomet’r J
GUN. , g i ee gi : btm ae Remarks.
_ |Weig’t. | Height.| bee. }Diam. = 2
Ibs. in. Ibs. in. in. ba.
{| 125 | 35 | 640 (858 | (8:25) a3 Piezomet’r attach’d to
“ ev 632 | « “ the bottom of the bore.)
“ *, 2 “ . |
ae j ‘ : a che 2 1% yen oo Rie ok
6 pdre } “ 3°42 63 “ “
“15 | 40 6 32 sey bes 53
“ “ 6°33 “ “ 0
“ “ 6°29 “ “ 47°
LA 4°55 | 631 * bk 59°
ie el es Gg d ES ee “" 8° er in coe ge}
« | 435 | 635 | « # 168°
“ | 455 | 636 (3575) - 4 [53° 18510) /Mean of . solide
« | « |684} « | 7g [50° | 9575\Mean unds.
«| « |639 | « | are laa? | 7740Mean of 84
bs 8; 6°38 wi 158 |52° } 957 Kis es
. = 6-29 40 28'S = 50°
Brass 4 “ “ 633 “ 318 “
6 pdr. “ « 6°36 “ 39°8 “
77 « 6°34 “ 478 “
“ 4:48 6 l l “ 1 “
“ 4°65 0 “ “
20/605} 0 |.. lige
88 0 “ “ 14820
20 | 565 | 636 |3:575) « 20640 Mean of 2 rounds.
4 0 ji 885 64. “ “ 20|
15 | 438 1216 1366; 15 | « 20480 Cylinders =. to 2 bi
“ “ee oo} “ “ 2)
6 pdr. }} «| @ |ioag | « « |g9° sor
grains, in.
70 | o7 | 666 0675 60°
a
Tn the first two experiments recorded in the ——
the orifice of the piezometer was 3} inch es from the
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 159
the bore, and was covered but } inch deep with powder—th
_ orifice facing toward the muzzle of the gun. The momentum
of the gases rushing forward in the explosion seems to have re-
lieved the instrument from a part of the pressure sustained by
the sides of the bore at the same distance from the bottom
he variations of pressure sustained by the gun when fired
_with charges very nearly the same, are greater, as might be ex-
ected, than the variations of initial velocity imparted to the
under similar circumstances. When the combustion of the
action on the ball is not so well sustained as in the case in
which the combustion is more slow and consequently longer
continued.
The { following svi of initial eae of 6 pdr. balls, extracted
from a table in Major Mordecai’s “Second Report” a his ex-
periments on mere aor will ee for the compariso
Initial velocities of balls fired from a 6 pdr. gun,
x Powder. ~___ Shot, Titial
; Weight.| Height | We ghi We ght. _Dinm.— Velocity.
lbs. ia. A, Tes 5 ila _— Ift.pr.sec’d. .
1 4 611 358 |} 1594
15 48 615 f i 1
15 49 613 e 94
16 6 26 * 153 q
15 687 | * | 1°98 ent Seg
15 63 - 1520 | 3
a : ‘Ae, xt se Dedeviption of the Wax-paper process peblames 4 for
the’ chow So i Ae ro at the Radcliffe Ubserv
Ek sae by oS KES, Esq.*
EFORE attem ting to seledt from the numerous Photo-
- thse ‘best adapted to the. requirements of
‘ pa ee it was necessary to take into consideration a num-
ber of circumstances, ~stawre a wad unimportant in ordinary
_ operations. —
To “ of any valu
continuously :
TSetet. "Therefore, the process adopted must be one combining
sharpness of definition, with extreme sensitiveness, in order to
? mark accurately the minute and oftentimes sudden variations of
the instruments.
ees. the Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Radcliffe
: Oherr Oxford, in the year 1854, under the superin of Manuel J.
MA » Radelifle Observer. Vol. X
,, the records must go on ‘heeasiigy and
V. Oxford:
160 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
2nd. To avoid all hurry and confusion, it is of the utmost im-
portance that the prepared paper or other medium, be of a kind —
sitive by the nitrate of magnesia process, was a failure. igi
4th. Strong contrast of light and shade, and absence of half
pictures, is in this case no objection. spe ping
5th. It is essential to preserve the original results in an ac-
cessible form; and for this reason, the daguerreotype process,
: ly as it seems to answer other requisites, 1s obviously
not the one best suited to our purpose. q
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 161
description of the manipulation, as may render it more service-
able to those who have not hitherto paid attention to photo-
graphy in its practical details. This must be my excuse, if to
some i seem unnecessarily prolix. None but a practical hotog-
rapher can appreciate upon what apparently trivial aid
Among those requisites, which may be almost called absolute
necessaries, are gas, and a plentiful supply of good water, as soft
as can be procured.
4. The windows and shutters of the room should be so con-
trived as to allow of their either being thrown wide open for pur-
poses of ventilation, or of being closed sufficiently well to exclude
every gleam of daylight; and the arrangement should admit of
the transition from one’ to the other being made with as little
€: ,
5. A piece of very deep orange-colored glass, about two feet
Square, should be put in the window, and the shutter ought to
be constructed so i
di for illumination at night;
arrangement for placing a screen of orange glass in
rough deal benches should be put up in different parts
F the room, witl shelves, drawers, cupboards, &. The arrange-
tment of these matters must of course depend upon the capabili-
ties of the room. ae ;
7. The following apparatus is required. The quantities are
_ those that we have found necessary in this Observatory.
‘Hight dishes.
Eight mill board covers. 4
_ Three brushes for cleaning dishes.
A vessel for melting wax.
_ SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856.
21
162 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
Two ge ee
box
Sltcrica pa caper
A still for water.
One finned stand. *.
Pint, half vm one ounce, and one RSD, measures.
Three glass
Boxes for holding paper. ae
es and eo mopar niy s m4
r sto tties,
8. The erates may be made OF glass ass, porcelain, or gutta perc |
Glass and porcelain are cortatily cleaner than gutta corked a8 d
for general use the latter is far preferable, as with it there is no .
risk of breakage, and the bottom of the dish can be made per- ~
fectly flat, which is a great advantage, These dishes should is be ~
made of sufficient length to allow of a margin of about half an —
inch at each end when the paper is in; and the shape should be ~
made as nearly square as —— by arranging them to ane :
two or three sheets side b EL
ver.
9. The ae etep for cleanin
common pecwbing brush will be
W. Crookes on the War-paper Photographic Procees. 168
common water, once with distilled water, and then placed in a
: slanting position against a wall, face downwards, to drain on
| clean blotting paper.
: 11. The vessel in which the wax is melted, must be contrived
SO as never to allow of its reaching a higher temperature than
212° Fahr., or decomposition of the wax might ensue. I have
found the most convenient apparatus to be, a tin vessel 15 inches
i square and 4 inches deep, having a tray which holds the wax
fitting into it, about 1 inch deep. The under vessel is to be half
7 filled with water, and by keeping this just at the boiling tem-
__ perature, the wax above will soon become liquid.
_ 12. The best source of heat is that known as the gauze gas
burner, it being free from smoke or dust, and not liable to
_ _ blacken anything placed over it. It consists of a common argand
burner fixed on a rather low and heavy iron stand, which is sur-
uare inch fastened over the top. _ y connecting this burner
by means of vulcanised indian rubber tubing to the gas pipe, it
can be moved about the table to any convenient position, The
mixture of gas and air formed inside the cylinder, is to be lighted
e the wire gauze; it burns over this with a large and nearly
Shea msequence. So j
ee a plate of silver; this is very expensive, and seems
- wove blotting paper, - éedium thickness. But this is not suff-
J
as the quantity required is trifling. A convenient size for the
still is about two gallons; it may procured ready made, with
_ worm &c. complete, of any large dealer in chemical apparatus,
_ Tt will be found far more economical both in time and trouble,
a
164 W. Crookes on the Wax paper Photographie Process.
to heat the water over a charcoal or coke fire, in preference to
using gas for this purpose. |
16.
ckets.
P'The measures should be of glass, graduated, the pint and half
pint into ounces, the ounce measure into drachms, and the —
drachm measure into minims; they should be rather long in ©
proportion to their width. ee ~ a
"he Florence oil flasks, which can be obta
btained | ra trifle ab
any warehouse, will be found to answer ws ge nearly as
hey must be
done by
well as the more expensive German flas
cleansed thoroughly from the adhering oil; this may be
boiling in them, over the gauze gas burner, a strong soluti
ordinary washing soda, and afterwards well rinsing out ¥
W. Crookes on the ee Process. 165
A sponge will be found Ao ‘for wiping up any of the solu-
tions that may have cm spilt on the bench. Solid glass stirring
rods of about the thickness of a quill, and six or eight inches
long, and a small medeetan pestle and mortar, are of great
service in many of the operations.
Stoppered bottles should be employed for all the solutions ;
and too much care cannot be taken to label each bottle accurately
and distinctly.
19. Besides the above apparatus, the following materials and
chemicals are requisite. A rough estimate is also given of their
relative consumption in three months
Photographic a 270 sheets, ¢ or 112 square feet.
‘our pounds of
hree ounces of iodid of ener
Phree ounces of bromid of potass
: ‘our ounces of nitrate of silver.
5 _ Two ounces of glacial acetic acid.
~ eadfour ounces of gallic acid.
~ One pint of alcohol. :
Seven pounds of hyposulphite of soda.
Half a pound of cyanid of potassium.
- Half a pint of concentrated nitric acid.
__ Eighteen gallons of distilled water.
20. The selection of a good sample of paper for the basis on
a
ance, as any imperfection will be a source of annoyance in every
i fineked of the process, and will hardly fail to show itself on the
‘fini ture. The paper, which from numerous ex ee
to be superior to any other, is that
in photographic is his is mannlietared with
saan
will be found by far the sa advantageous p ae when used
as ls like the present, to order wholesale sta-
ti nt cut
ta: the requisite dimensions. The size of the sheets
by aot inches*. Hitherto Messrs.
Street, have supplied us with the
21. I am indebted ey Mr. Barchiy of Regent Street, wax
bleacher, for much valuable information concerning wax and its
adulteratio tions, and for an extensive assortment of waxes of all
_ * This i ® most inconvenient size, as it involves the cutting of more than one
thind of the ps erto waste. The admirably ingenious arrangement of Mr. Ronald’s,
was not ae the view of em) man rah copra paper; or it would doubtless
have been contrived to accomodate of a size which could be cut with less
2 ast much A544 by. 14 incben, ox 44 by 11 1ti
166 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
kinds, and in every degree of purity: also to Mr. Maskelyne,
for a valuable series of the chemical bodies of which the various _
waxes are composed; by means of these, I have been enabled ~
to examine the effect produced by saturating the paper with —
bees wax from different countries, Myrica wax, Canauba wax, —
China wax, spermaceti, ethal, stearic acid, stearin, palmitic acid,
palmitin, paraffin, and various oils.
22. I find that the action of the wax is purely mechanical,
almost the only difference of effect produced by any of the above
bodies, widely as they vary in their chemical nature, arising from 3
a difference in their physical properties.
aos
EE a ne a
Stearin, palmitin, and most of the oils, are too greasy in their
nature to be advantageously employed. The fatty acids do not
make the paper in the least greasy, but they injure the transpa-
rency. China wax has almost too high a melting point, and
gives a crystalline structure to the paper. Spermaceti also is too
crystalline. Paraffin, ethal, and the waxes, produce very good
, &.; the presence of a little spe
does not much interfere, but as its price differs little fro n that
of pure wax, it is not so common an adulteration as the other
cheaper substances. .
3. It will be unsafe to use the wax in the form of round thin
tablets, about 4 inches in diameter, in which it is usually met —
with, as in this state it is generally adulterated to the extent of —
at least 50 per cent. . | a :
"Asan article of commerce, it is next to impossible to obtain
small quantities of wax sufficiently pure to be reliec upon.
The only way I can recommend is to apply to one of the well
known large bleachers, and trust to them for supplying the arti-
cle ina state of purity. Whenever I have found it necessary
to make such applications, my request has always been acceded
to in the most cordial manner, and every information has been
given with the utmost readiness. oe
24. The other chemicals, (with the exception of the strong
nitric acid, which any retail druggist will supply, and the wa
which had best be distilled on the premises,) should be order
direct from some manufacturing chemist, as otherwise, unless
operator have a sufficient knowledge of chemistry to be able to
detect any inferiority, there is danger of not having the article
sufficiently pure. ee eee eee,
The iodid and bromid of potassium should be ordered purified
The nitrate of silver should be crystallized, not in sticks; i
ought to be perfectly dry, and have no smell, acid or otherwise.
There are usually two varieties of glacial acetic acid to be met
; the purest must be used; it should be perfectly free from
oat
ae
the:
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 167
any empyreumatic odor, and must cause no turbidity when
mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver, e. g.in making the
exciting bath (42).
_ The gallic acid should be as nearly white in color as possible.
Especial care should be taken to have the alcohol ood ; it
should be 60° over proof, and of ney gravity 0°83. On evap-
orating a few drops on the palm of the hand, no smell should be
left behind, nor should it, under the same circumstances, leave
any stain on a sheet of white spree
_ 26. The hyposulphite of soda will be found one of the articles
most difficult to obtain pure; there is a large quantity at present.
in the market, having little else of the salt but the name, and is
of course totally unfit for use; if there be the least doubt about
its purity, it should be tested in the following manner :—
eigh out accurately 10 grains of, nitrate of silver, dissolve
this in half an ounce of distilled water; then add 4 grains of
ehlorid of sodium (common salt) also dissolved in water. On
mixing these two solutions together, a white curdy precipitate of.
chlorid of silver will fall down. .N ext add 22 grains of the hy-
posulphite of soda, and allow it to stand for about ten minutes,
stir :
less amount of residue will
urity.
nerally all the sheets lie in the same direction, therefore it is
only necessary to ascertain that the smooth side of one of them
is uppermost, and then draw a pencil once or twice along the
exposed edges. : ,
28. The paper has now to be saturated with white wax.. The
apparatus br this purpose has been previously described (11.)
ne eax is to be made perfectly liquid, and then the sheets of
‘Paper, taken up singly and held by one end, are gradually low-
—
168 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
ereihi on to the fluid. As soon as the wax is ee which
=
bee]
re)
rg
Tm
a |
ro)
#
“a
bo J
>
$
=
PS)
=
pe
=
5
ieje)
5
He
. a8e
oe
a
on
3
tr
z Eee
&
29. The paper i in this stage will contain far more wax than _
necessary; the excess may be removed, by placing the sheets
singly between inintiiiee paper (14), and i ironing them; but this
is wasteful, and the loss may be avoided by placing on ‘each side
of the waxed sheet two or three sheets of unwaxed eee oe oe
Pal r, and then ironing the whole between blotting paper; t
generally be enough wax on the centre sheet to wervolball
fully those next to it on each side, and partially, if not entirely,
the others. Those that are imperfectly waxed may be made the |
outer sheets of the succeeding set. Finally, each — must be
separately ironed between blotting paper, until
patches of wax are absorbed.
30. It is of the utmost consequence that the tempers vu
the iron should not exceed that of boiling water. Before using, —
I always dip it into water until the hissing entirely ceases. This
poeta lick to the ehe of this plo
gravelly appearance, or are of smoothness in the: lights, and
quick rage cs in the ae solution.
B31. A well waxed sheet of paper, when viewed by obliquel:
reflected light, ought to amo a perfectly uniform glazed
ance on one side, while the other should be rather duller; th
must be no shining patches on any part of the surface, nor
should any irregularities be observed on examining the paper
with a black ground placed behind; seen by tranamnted A h
it will appear opalescent, but there should be no appreae toa
granular structure. sone alien sheets is slight!)
82. The e paper, h ng undergone on tag 10
is ready for ‘odiing ; thie is effected ete pletely pine crsing it
in an aqueous solution of an alkaline iodid, either Yeio-er mieed
with some analogous _— .
* These spots have been analyzed by Mr Mt Malone; pete them to consist, not ‘pte
of iron, as is generally su but of small pieces of brass. I have
ined thera myself with a like result.
: W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 169
B
:
i
fa
:
:
fa
ta
:
:
a
i
iodid of silver per se was the best sensitive surface for receiving
4m image in the Camera; but on making use of that body in
__ these operations, (by employing pure iodid of potassium in the
_ bath,) I was surprised to meet with results, for which I was at
first unable to account. A little consideration, however, showed
‘me the direction in which I was to look for a remedy. The ex-
periments which had led me to prefer iodid of silver as a sensi-
tive surface, had all been performed with sunlight, either direct,
or more frequently in the form of diffused daylight. In this
case, however, coal gas was the source of light; and if, as was
_ very probable, there were any great difference in the quality of
_ the light from these two sources, the superiority of iodid over
the bromid or chlorid of silver would still be a matter for ex-
3 nd + ,
- periment. Z
____ 384A comparison of the spectra of the two kinds of light
a : en . .
_ Sitions were fully borne out by experiment: on introducing a
little bromid of potassium into the i bath
potassium + odizing bath, the change was
very apparent. It requires a certain proportion to be observed
between the two to obtain the best results. If the iodid of
potassium be in excess, the resulting silver salt will be wanti
in sensitiveness, requiring a comparatively long development to
render an image visible; while, if the bromid be in excess, there
will be a great want of vigor in the impression, the picture being
red and transparent. When the proportion between the two is
properly adjusted, the paper will be extremely sensitive, the
pecatite. presenting a vigorous black SPpeArsnag without the
least approach to cutee addition of a chlorid was found to
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII. NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856,
22
170 W. Crookes on the War-paper Photographic Process.
roduce @ ee similar effect to that of a bromid, butina ~
ion marked degree. As no particular advantage could be traced
to it, it was not employe 4
t ve also tried most of the different forms of organie ;
matter, thal it is customary to add to this bath, but I cannot —
recommend th em; the most that can be said is, that some of
them do no harm. At first I thought a little isinglass might be —
an improvement, as it instantly removes the greasiness from the _
surface of the paper, and allows the iodid of potassium to pene-
trate more readily. Unfortunately, however, it interferes with
the most important property of this process, that of remaining
ime. 4
36. I think the best results are obtained, when the jodid and 7
bromid are mixed in the proportion of their atomic weights; the ~
strenzth being as follows: J
Todid of potassium . : ; 582°5 grains,
Bromid of potassium : . 417°5 grains.
Dare Wate Se 40 ounces.*
When the two salts have dissolved in the water, the mixture :
should be filtered; the bath will then be fit for use A
87. At first, a slight difficulty will be felt in immersing ‘the
waxed sheets in the liquid without enclosing air bubbles, the
the best way is to hold the paper by one end, and gradually to
bring it down on to the liquid, commencing at the other end;
the paper ought not to slant towards the surface of the bath, or _
there will be danger of enclosing air bubbles; but while it is
being laid down, the part out of the liquid should be kept as
nearly as possible perpendicular to the surface of the liquid; any —
curling up of the sheet when first laid down, may be prevented
by breathing on it gently: In about ten minutes, the sheet
ought to be lifted up by one corner, and turned over in the sam
manner; a slight agitation of the dish will then throw the ee
a over that “sheet, and another can be treate c
mann
38. “Tho sheets must remain soaking in this bath for about 4
three hours; several times during that interval, (and especially
if there be many sheets in the same bath,) they ought to
moved about and turned over singiys to allow of the liquid :
+ While giving the above as the calculated “rt I do mt to tt q
upon their being adhered to with any extreme accura oe . 4
dieediiens side would I believe be without any percepti eon thea a
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 171
: room, and hooking the papers on to this by means of a pin bent
_ into the shape of the letter S. After a sheet has been hung up
for a few minutes, a oo of blotting paper, about one Ps
square, should be stuck to the bottom corner to absorb the drop,
and prevent its drying on the sheet, or it would cause a stain in
the picture.
39. While the sheets are drying, they should be looked at
occasionally, and the way in which the liquid on the surface
dries, noticed; if it collect in drops all over the surface, it is
a sign that the sheets have not been sufficiently acted on by the
iodizing bath, owing to their having been removed from the
latter too soon. The sheets will usual ly during drying assume a
dirty pink appearance, owing probably to the liberation of iodine
by ozone in the air, and its subsequent combination with the
starch and wax in the paper. This is by no means a bad sign,
if the color be at all uniform; but if it appear in patches and
a it shows that there has been some irregular a sorption of
the wax, or defect in the iodizing, and it will be as well to reject
sheets so marked. .
. As soon as the sheets are quite dry, they can be put aside
in a box for use ata future time. There is a great deal of un-
certainty as regards the length of time the sheets may be kept
in this state without spoiling; I can speak from experience as to
there being no sensible deterioration after a lapse of ten months,
but further than this I have not tried.
Up to this stage, it is immaterial whether the operations have
been performed by daylight or not; but the subsequent treat-
Ment, until the fixing of the picture, must be done by yellow
t (0).
“41. The next step consists in rendering the iodized paper sen-
_ Sitive to light. Although, when extreme care is taken in this
_ Operation, it is hardly of any Sop bec when this is performed;
‘et in practice, it will not be foun convenient to excite the paper
earlier than about a fortnight before its being required for use.
The materials for the exciting bath are nitrate of silver, glacial
acetic acid, and water. Some operators replace the acetic acid
_ by tartaric acid; but as I cannot perceive the effect of this
hange except in a diminution of sensitiveness, I have not adopted
it. It is of little importance what be the strength of the solu-
tion of nitrate of silver; the disadvantages of a weak solution
are, that the sheets require to remain in contact with it for a con-
siderable time before the decomposition is effected, and the bath
aires oftener renewing ; while witha bath which is too strong,
time is equally lost in the long-continued washing requisite to
enable the paper to keep good for any length of time. The
quantity of acetic acid is also of little consequence.
172 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
Sie
ges an eee
42. In the following bath, I have endeavored so to adjust the
rtion of nitrate of silver, as to avoid as much as possible
Poth the inconveniences mentioned above,
Nitrate of silver . : j ; 800 grains.
Glacial acetic acid ; : . 2 drachms.
Distilled water
The nitrate of silver and acetic acid are to be added to the water,
and when dissolved, filtered into a clean dish (10), taking care
that the bottom of the dish be flat, and that the liquid cover it
to s de th of at least half an inch all over; by the side of this,
be: nila dishes must be placed, each containing distilled
Re ne ee ee >
rs "A sheet of iodized paper is to be taken by one end, and
gradually lowered, the marked side downwards, on to to the exci-
ting solution, taking eare that no liquid gets on to the back, and
no air bubbles are enclosed.
It will be necessary for the sheet to remain on this bath from
five to ten minutes; but it can generally be known when the
operation is completed by the change in appearance, the pink
color entirely disappearing, and the sheet assuming a ne homo-
geneous straw color. When this is the case, one of it
must be raised up by the platinum spatula, lifted out “of be dish
with rather a quick movement, allowed to drain for about half a —
minute, and then floated on the surface of the water in the second
dish, while another iodized sheet is placed on the nitrate of silver
solution ; when this has remained on fora sufficient time, it —
must be in ike manner: transferred to the oe: of distilled water,
— removed the previous sheet to the n y
third iodized sheet can now be excited, ead when this
is sainlitett the one first excited must be rubbed erfectly dry
between folds of clean blotting paper (14), wra up in clean
r, and preserved in a portfolio until required for use; an
the others can be transferred a dish forward, as before , taking
care that each sheet be washed twice in distilled water, and that.
at every fourth sheet the dishes of washing water be emptied,
and replenished with clean distilled water ; poh water should —_
be thrown “ne but preserved in a bottle fora subsequeay
operation (49 i
45. The x quantity of the exciting bath, will be fou :
quite — to excite about fifty sheets of the size here em
ig 3000 Ss ise inches of paper. After the —_ Foon
Pe mE Le ag SR IN ee TIE Oe nd ND Ce Rae meee
sens
ness. Generally, mrifibient attention is 9 pone to this oink
It should a borne in mind, that an amount
the paper were only exposed to its action for a
46. Experience alone can tell the proper time to expose. the
Sensitive paper to the action of light, in order to obtain the best
effects. However, it will be useful to remember, that it is almost
always possible, however short the time of exposure, to obtain
some trace of effect by prolonged development. Varyi
#
be
Be
ae
An improvement on the ordinary method of developing with
gallic acid, formed the subject of a communication to the Philo-
sophical Magazine for March, 1855, where I recommend the
employment of a strong alcoholic solution of gallic acid, to be
dilluted with water when required for use, as being more econo-
_ mical both of time and trouble than the preparation of a great
“quantity of an aqueous solution for each operation.
~ 8, The-solution is thus made: put two ounces of crystallized
gallic acid into a dry flask with a narrow neck; over this poms
_ 81x ounces of good alcohol, (60° over proof,) and place the flask
in hot water until the acid is Sroclnea or nearly so. This will
not take long, especially if it be well shaken once or twice.
__ Allow it to cool, then add half a drachm of glacial acetic acid,
_ and filter the whole into a stoppered bottle.
_ 49, The developing solution which I employ for one set of
sheets, or 180 square inches, is prepared by aoneg together ten
ounces of the water that has been previously for washing
the excited papers (44), and four drachms of the exhausted exei-
_ ting bath (45); the mixture is then filtered into a perfectly clean
dish, and half a drachm of the above alcoholic solution of gallic
acid poured into it. dish > shaken about until the
greasy appearance has quite gone from the surface; and then the
sheets of paper may be laid down on the solution in the ordinary
Manner with the marked side downwards, taking particular care
that none of the solution gets on the back of the paper, or it will
E
3
174 W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process.
cause a stain. Should this happen, either dry it with blotting
paper, or immerse the sheet entirely in the liquid.
50. If the paper has been exposed to a moderate light, the
picture will begin to appear within five minutes of its being laid
on the solution, and will be finished in a few hours,
however sometimes be requisite, if the light has been feeble, to
prolong the development for a day or more. If the dish be per-
fectly clean, the developing solution will remain active for the
whole of this time, and when used only for a few hours, will be
cuikee appearance indicates the presence of dirt. The progress
of the development may be watched, by gently raising one cor-
of producing stains on the surface of the picture. I prefer
allowing the development to go on, until the black is rather
yellow iodid of silver has been dissolved out. This operation —
need not be performed by yellow light; daylight is oe bettter |
for shewing whether the picture be entirely fixed. This will
take from a quarter of an hour to two hours, according to the
time the bath has been in use.
It will be well not to put too many sheets into the bath at once,
in order to avoid the necessity of turning them over to allow the
liquid to penetrate every part. ts
When fixed, the sheet if held up between the light and the
eye, will present a pure transparent appearance in the white
The fixing bath gradually becomes less and less active by use,
and then its action is very energetic on the dark parts of the
picture, attacking and dissolving them equally with the un- —
changed iodid. When this is the case it sould be put on one
side, (not thrown away,) and a fresh bath made. ai!
53. After removal from the fixing bath, the sheets must be
well washed. In this operation, the effect depends more upon —
the quantity of water used, than upon the duration of the immer: _
W. Crookes on the Waz-paper. Photographic Process. 175
sion. When practicable it is a good plan to allow water from a
tap to flow over the sheets for a minute or two, and having thus
54. They are then to be dried by hanging up by a crooked
pin, as after iodizing. When dry, they will present a very
rough and granular appearance in the transparent.parts; this is
removed by melting the wax, either before a fire, or, what is far
better, by placing them between blotting paper, and passing a
warm iron over them; by this means, the white parts will re-
cover their original transparency.
containing any remarkable phenomena. [ will therefore now
detail the method of printing photographie positives from these
hegatives, premising that the process Hy
m that usually acidpted
oes not differ materially
l
t
as the quantity required is but small, it will perhaps be found
“better to obtain aalt
along with the
4 The chlorid of gold is merely required for an artistic effect.
‘Many persons object to the reddish brown appearance of ordi-
nary photographic positives; the addition of a little chlorid of
old to the fixing bath converts this into a rich brown or black ;
the trifling quantity required removes any objection to its use on
the score of expense, oo. a
58. I prefer using the same kind of paper for positives as
for negatives (20). Messrs Canson n nufacture a thicker paper,
which is generally called positive aper, but I think the thin is
*»
“
176 W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process.
Pee es
far preferable; the + aE is smoother, and the various solutions _
Po much bette :
59. e first piretibe which the paper has to undergo is :
‘oii the bath for this purpose consists of
Chlorid of sodium ee <. S100 piaing
Distilled water. 40 ounces.
Filter this into a clean dish, andl completely i immerse the sheets,
marked as directed (27). This is best done ‘by laying them
gently on the surface of the liquid, and then pressing them under —
by passing a glass rod over them; as many sheets as the dish —
will hold may be thus immersed one after the other. Allow —
them to soak for about ten minutes, then lift and turn them over —
in a body; afterwards they may be hung up to dry (38), com-
mencing with the sheet which was first put in, When dry, they ;
may be taken down and put aside for use at any future time.
The sheets in drying generally curl up very much; it will there-
fore be found convenient in the next i aa if the salted sheets,
before being put away, have been allowed to remain in the
pressure is tight, for about 24 Bours This makes them —
ese ae
othe os exciting bath is st eis of ws.
Nitrate of silver . ‘ . 150 grains. :
psa Water. 10 ounces.
tering, ge ase: polntion into a clean dish; and seat :
likely to be required in the course of a ll for they gradually
turn brown by keeping, even in the dark, and lose sensitiveness.
They will, however, keep much better, if — tight in the
ressure frame, and thus protected from the :
62. When a positive is to be printed Ranta a aieuaee let the
glass of the pressure frame be perfectly cleansed and free from
dust on both sides, then lay the negative on it, with its back to
the glass. On it place a sheet of positive paper, with its sensi-
tive side down. Then, having placed over, as a pad, several
sheets of blotting paper, screw the back down with sufficient
force to press the two. it
80 as to sighed the
7
Gi
- anether
W. Crookes on the Wax-paper Photographic Process. 17
63. No rule can be laid down for the proper time of exposure;
it will depend upon the uality of the light, and intensity of the
negative; some pictures ing completed in a few minutes, others
requiring upwards of half an hour. The printing should always
Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces.
Water ee ear ee
This bath will be found to fix the pictures perfectly, but they
will generally be of a reddish tint ; if it.be thought desirable to
obtain the pictures of some shade of dark brown, or black, it
will be necessary to employ a bath made as follows ;
Saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda 10 ounces.
PW ae : : ; : : : ounces,
Exhausted positive exciting solution (61) 10 ounces.
_ Mix these together and then add the following ;
Water ; : ; : cee 10 ounces,
RISER OT BONES 4-.s eey ork Te gD grains;
taking care in mixing to pour the solution of gold into the solu-
on of hyposulphite, and not the latter into the former, or |
er decomposition will be produ -
Pour this mixture into a dish, and lay the positive carefully
on it, face downwards. As soon as it is thoroughly damp,
_ (which may be known by its becoming 2 gd flat after having
time, When first put in, the color will change to a light brown,
and in the course of some time, varying from ten minutes to two
bath for ten minutes at least in ord t it may be perfectly
SECOND SERIES, Vou. XXIl, NO. 65.——SEPT., 1856,
23
178 W. Crookes on the Waz-paper Photographic Process.
fixed. After this time, its stay need only be prolonged until it
has become of the desired tone and color; always remembering,
that during the subsequent operation of drying, &c., it will —
become of a somewhat darker tint than when taken out of the
fixing bath. |
66. On removal from this bath, the pictures must be allowed
to soak in a large quantity of cold water for ten or twelve hours,
There must not be very many in the dish at atime, and the
water must be changed at least three times during that interval;
they must then have boiling water poured over them (of course —
in a porcelain dish) two or three times, and lastly pressed dry,
between sheets of clean blotting Paper (14), (these may be used
several times, if dried,) and then allowed to dry spontaneously ©
in the air. When the pressure frame is not in use, a pile of these —
finished positives may be put in, and kept tightly screwed up all
night; by this means they will be rendered perfectly flat and
smooth.
67. The picture is now complete. It must be borne in mind, —
however, that the light and shade are reversed by this operation, —
the track of the luminous image along the paper being repre-
sented by a white instead of by a black band, as in the original —
negative. Should it be desired to produce exact facsimiles of —
the negatives, it can be done by employing one of these positives —
as a negative, and printing other positives from it; in this way,
the light and shade having been twice reversed, will be the same
as in the original negative.
68. In some cases it may happen, that owing to a partial
failure of gas, or imperfection in the sensitive sheet, an image
may be so faint as to render it impossible to print a distinct posi-
tive. The gap that this would produce in a set of pictures may
Chega cas ere ee
co
e.
ro)
we
a
°
=)
3
&
<4
oO
.
aa!
fo)
tear)
©
i=)
ey
peal
>
o
=|
2.
<
=
e.
fe}
=
this piece to the light until it has become perfectly opaque, a
then it can either b igi >
*
¥ ar ip
J. W. Mallet on a Zeolitic Mineral. 179
Art. XIV.—On @ Zeolitic mineral (allied to Stilbite) from the Isle
of Skye, Scotland; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D.
THE specimen to which the following description refers has
een in my ion for several years, and has attached to it a
label bearing the name “ Hypostilbite,” but analysis shows it to
be a mineral quite distinct from Beudant's hypostilbite of the
Faroe Islands, and differing also from both stilbite proper and
epistilbite.
Tt occurs as a mass of minute crystals, resembling white loaf
sugar, breaking easily, and crushing under the fingers into a
coarsish crystalline powder. The Separate grains viewed under
the microscope appear as single prismatic crystals or little groups
of three or four, nearly transparent, colorless, and with a pearly
lustre, especially on two opposite faces,—closely resembling stil-
bite in fact in general appearance,
The crystalline form could not be satisfactorily made out, but
seemed to be monoclinic. Hardness a little greater than that of
calcite. Specific gravity =2-252. ;
trong muriatic acid poured over the pulverized mineral at
night had the next morning formed a distinct jelly.
On analysis the following results were obtain
Atoms.
RR es y.as bic.y daeest exis 63°95 = 1:191—3
Ps eu crk ca ox: 40 0c: 20°18 "892—1
ices re, cay. chaos 12°86 ‘459—L‘17
ok oy 66.6 cesses wk ss ce
Potash (with a little soda), .... ‘87
OO 2s keine 00. ee ee 12°42. 1:380—3-52
100°28
Neglecting the small quantity of alkali, these numbers lead
us nearly to the formula,
- &(CaO, SiO s)+2(AlaOa, 28i03)+7H0,
which differs completely from that of stilbite, CaO, SiO;+Als
Os, 3SiOs + 6HO, or that of epistilbite, CaO, SiO. + AlzOs,
83i0:+5HO. The percentage of water is also far too small for
hypostilbite. sie 3
The mineral appears to be a distinct one, and does not seem
to have resulted from the gradual decomposition or change of
any other; but it is perhaps scarcely desirable to add to the
already numerous names of stilbite-like minerals by adopting a
hew one for this substance until additional analyses of these
nearly related species shall permit of their more accurate classi-
180 R. Clausius on the Application of the
TR ee eee pee
Art, XV.—On the Application of the wore acheory of Heat
to the Steam Engine; by R. CLA
[Translated for this Journal from Pogg. Ann. xcviii, 441, by W. G.]*
1. As the change in our views on the nature and relations of
heat which is now comprised under the name of the “mechan-
ical theory of heat,” had its origin in the recognized fact that
heat may be emplo ed in producing mechanical work, we might
a@ priori expect that, conversely, the theory which was ‘originated —
in this way would contribute to put this application of heat ina —
eas light. In particular the more general points of view ob- —
in this way should render it possible to form a certain —
judgment on the particular machines which serve for this appli- —
cation, whether they already perfectly answer their purpose, or —
whether, and how far, eeey are susceptible of improvement. 4
To these principles, which hold good for all thermodynamic —
machines, there are to be added for the most important of them— —
the steam engine—some particular ones which incite us to submit
it to a new investigation deduced from the mechanical theory of ©
heat. Some im 5 ere deviations from the laws which were |
formerly assum correct, or at least applied in calculation, —
nite been found to “hold good precisely for steam at its maximum
ensity. a
ee ee eee ee
ue
i
:
'
2. In this particular I believe that I must first remind the ~
reader that it has been proved by Rankine and myself, that when : q
a quantity of steam, originally at its maximum density, expands —
in a shell which is impermeable to heat, by pushing back with its _
full expansive force a movable portion of the shell, as for in- —
stance a piston, a portion of the steam must be Lea as
reasonin q
Furthermore, in the want of accurate knowledge, it was for- q
merly assumed, in determining the volume of the unit of weight |
of saturated steam at different temperatures, that steam even at |
its maximum density still obeys the laws of Mariotte and Gay
Lussac. In opposition to this I have already shewn in my first
memoir on this subject,t that we may calculate the volumes which
a unit of weight of steam assumes at different temperatures at its
maximum density, from the fundamental principles of the me-— ’
chanical theory of hea by means of the collateral assumption, —
that a permanent gas when ut expands at a constant temperature ab-
* The importance of this memoir induces us to ave it My = instead of ate
a dos machines & repel. por ta Come VEC M.G.d Pi Pasco Paris, 1844. :
’ ie 3
t Pogg. Ann., Ixxix, 36 Pepe j
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 181
sorbs only so much heat as ts consumed in doing the external work
ormed, and that we find in this way many values which, at
the higher temperatures at least, deviate considerably from the
laws of Gay Lussac and Mariotte. :
is view of the behavior of steam was not shared at that
e even by authors who occupied themselves specially with
the mechanical theory of heat. W. Th
tested the point. He found—even a year later in a memoir laid
to test the correctness of this assumption experimentally. They
have in fact found by a series of well devised experiments con-
ducted upon a large scale, that the assumption is so nearly correct
for the permanent gases examined by them, namely, atmospheric
air and hydrogen, that the variations may in most calculations be
neglected. They found, however, greater variations for the non-
permanent gas, carbonic acid, which they also studied. This
corresponds entirely with the remark, which I added to the first
mention of the assumption, that it is noe true for every gas
Mariotte and Gay
_ Lussac find their application to the same gas. In consequence of
these experiments, Foctioon has now also calculated the volume
of saturated steam in the same way as myself. I believe there-
fore that the correctness of this mode of calculation will gradu-
ally be more and more fully recognized by other physicists also,
3. These two examples will suffice to shew that the fundamen-
tal principles of the former theory of the steam engine have
undergone such important changes through the mechanical the-
ory of heat that a new investigation of the subject is n ;
e present memoir I have made the attempt to develop the
tainly well worthy of consideration—to apply steam in an over-
heated state
In setting forth this investigation I shall only suppose as known
my last published memoir* “On an form of the second
principal theorem of the mechanical theory of heat.” It is true
that it will in this way be necessary to deduce a second time in a
somewhat different manner some results which are no longer new,
but which were obtained at an earlier period by other writers or
by myself; I believe however, that this repetition will be justi-
fied by the greater unity and clearness of the whole.
I shall refer in the proper places to the papers in which these
tesults were first communicated, as far as they are known to me.
* Pogg. Ann., xciii, 481.
182 R. Clausius on the Application of the
4. The expression that heat drives a machine, is of course not
to be immediately referred to the heat, but is to be understood as
signifying that some substance present in the machine, in conse-
quence of the changes which it undergoes by heat, sets the parts.
of the machine in motion, We will call this substance the heat-
utilizing substance (den die Wirkung der Warme vermittelnden
Sto
If now a continually acting machine be in uniform action, all
the changes which occur take place gctgmapch 2 so that the same
condition in which the machine, with all its single parts, is found —
at a particular time, regularly recurs at equal intervals. Conse- |
uently the heat-utilizing substance must be present in the ma-
chine in equal quantity at such regularly recurring instants and —
must be in a similar condition, This condition may be fulfilled —
in two different ways. :
In the first place, one and the same quantity of this substance _
originally existing in the machine may always remain in it, in —
which case the changes of condition which the substance under- —
in practice. It occurs, for instance, in the caloric air machines
constructed up to the present time, inasmuch as after every stroke —
the air which has moved the piston in the cylinder is driven into —
the atmosphere, and an equal quantity of air is supplied from the -
atmosphere, through the feeding cylinder. The same is the case
> — re ae without condensers in which the steam A
om the cylinder into the atmosphere, while, to supply its place, —
o —_ portion of water is pumped from a anton me
iler. ‘@
Furthermore, at least a partial application is also made in
s
Ee which are worked by two different vapors, as for instance
y Water and the vapor of ether. In these the steam is con-
densed only by contact with the metallic tubes which are inter:
eT 1 Oe es Se
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 188
nally filled with liquid ether and is then completely pumped _
back into the boiler. In like manner the ether vapor is con-
to keep up a uniform action, therefore, it is only necessary to
add as much water or ether as escapes through the joints from
imperfections in the construction
6. In a machine of this kind in which the same mass is always
This is the case with steam engines with condensers, in which
the water is thrown out from the condenser in the liquid state,
and with the same temperature with which it passed from the
condenser into the boiler.*
_ In other machines the condition at the exit is different from
that at the entrance. The caloric air machines, for instance, even
when they are provided with regenerators, force the air into the
atmosphere with a. higher temperature than it previously had,
and the steam engines without condensers take up the water asa
be completed for the purpose of investigation, we aa apply to
all thermo-dynamic machines the theorems which hol
* The cooling water which passes into the condenser cold and out of it warm,
is not hove: takes into consideration, since it does not belong to the heat-utilizing
substance, but serves only as a negative source of heat.
184 R. Ciausius on the Application of the
have represented in my former memoir the two principal
cesapaa ivhioks hold good for every circular process, by the fol-
lowing equations.
(1 Q@=— A.W
(n) /e=-™
in which the letters have the same signification as they have
there; namely—
A is the equivalent of heat for the unit of work.
Q sipuiics t the external work done during the — process,
eat mene to the changea y dur-
ing the circular process, and d Q an oo of the aati by which
a quantity of heat en fi from the bod y is considered as negative
communicated heat. The integral of the second equation ex- —
tends over the whole quantity Q.
T’ is a function of the temperature which the variable bod
has at the moment at which it takes up the element of heat d 0,
or, should this body have different temperatures in its different —
parts, of the temperature of the part which takes up dQ. am
the form of the function 7, I have shewn in my previous memoir _
that it is probably nothing else than the temperature eer, when ©
this is estimated from the point which is determined by the Ter g
ciprocal value of the coefficient of expansion of an ale 3
—278°
Ref ge ea ge ae eet ee ee
aes
(1) T=273+2 ae
In future I shall employ the magnitude 7 always with this sig-
nification, and call it briefly the absolute te temperature, remark- |
ing however that the conclusions arrived at do not in their
essence depend upon this comcaae but remain valid even =
* A ies of t her
sources of heat which are to communicate heat to the vatlabie
— st ures than this last, and conversely those which ar municate +
to it negative heat, or to take sitet heat from it, must have lower te erates At
every excl of hea: een the variable body and a source o is an
immediate of heat nite a body of a higher tem a Par ae a swede ts
temperature, and herein lies an uncompensated transformation which is so — the
a special notice. The:
= oe
into pevailornsien te eee in ¥ or not, — as
we attribute to the temperature occurring in equation (i1). If we paces re ;
this the temperature of the source of heat belonging to the element dQ, these trans-
mations are included in NV, If however we understand by it as is above deter-
mined, and as it will be understood in this whole memoir e temperature of the —
variable body, these transformations are excluded from Nv Furthermore a remark —
= ae oe ee re eee
Mechanical’ Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 185
verted, then uncompensated transformations have come into
play, and the magnitude N has an assignable value, which how-
streams from one vessel, in which it was under a greater pres-
; this
__ Many cases of interest to know how much each single one of
_ the last has contributed to the production of the whole sum of
uncompensated transformations. For this purpose imagine that
the mass, after the change in condition ahich we wish in this
way to investigate, is brought back by any invertable process to
its original condition. In this way we obtain a small circular
up during the same, and the temperatures belonging to it, the
negative integral — -[' sa gives the uncompensated change which
has occurred in it. Now as the restoration which has taken
place in an invertable manner can have contributed nothing to
egat ecause it is lost for urce of heat, here on th r hs is consid-
ered as positive. All the elements of heat contained in the integral ot ee
their sign, and with them at the same time the whole integral, consequently in order
that the equation should remain correct notwithstanding the change, it was neces-
sary he sign on the other side also.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIJ, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1956,
24
*
186 R. Clausius on the Application of the
vertable. i
9. If we now apply equations (1) and (11) to the circular pro-
cess which takes place in the thermo-dynamic machine during a —
riod, we see in the first place that if the whole 5 pret of |
beat which the mediating substance has taken up during this —
time is given, then the work is also determined immediately by i
he first equation, without its being necessary to know the nature q
of the processes themselves of which the circular process con- —
sists. In similar generality we may, by the combination of the
two equations, determine the work from other data also, 4
We will assume that the quantities of heat which the variable
body receives one after the other, as well as the temperatures
which it has at the reception of each, are given, and that there i
only one temperature over and above, whose magnitude is not
known @ priort, at which a quantity of heat is still communi
ted to, or, if it be negative, taken from, the body. Let the s
of all the known quantities of heat be Q,, and the unknow
Then resolve the integral in equation (II) into two parts, 0
which one extends only over the known quantity of heat Q,, and
the other over the unknown quantity Q,. In the last part the |
integration may be directly executed, since 7’ has in it a constant
value 7',, and gives the expression a
Q
—
=
The equation (11) becomes hereby
Qi
dQ Vo _
i oe aes
whence sisws "
Qi
Q.=-7,.f Oe aes
o u
Further we have according to equation (1), as, for our case,
= Q.+ Qo: ;
1 —
W= 7(@.4Q)- ee
a substitute in this equation for Q, the value just found, we
_*
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 187
Qy
’ 1 d
(2) W=5 (0-7, f B-7,.m),
If we assume specially that the whole circular process is inverta-
Mei according to the above N=0, and the foregbinig equation
ecomes
We Le,-2,.f 9)
‘ 0
This expression is only distinguished from the previous one by
the term —-—°. WN. Since WV can only be positive this term can
when the whole circular process is invertable, and that the quan-
‘tity of work is diminished by every circumstance which causes
one of the special processes occurring in the cireular process to
be uninvertable.
Equation (2) leads accordingly to the sought value of the work
in a manner which is directly opposed to the usual one, inasmuch
as we do not, as formerly, determine singly the quantities of
work performed during the different processes and then add them
together, but set out from the maximum work, and subtract from
it the losses of heat which have arisen from the single incom-
plete parts of the process.
If we make the limiting condition with respect to the commu-
nication of the heat that the whole quantity of heat Q, is com-
municated to the body at a determined temperature 7’,, the
rtion of the integration embracing this quantity of heat may
at once Sxevuted, and gives
1
1
by which equation (3), which holds good for the maximum of
the work, talkes the following form,
sa Q, T 1-7
| (4) Wa di
In this special form the equation was already deduced by W.
Thomson and Rankine from the combination of Carnot’s theo-
rem, modified by me, with the theorem of the equivalence of
-. heat and work.*
10. Before we can pass from these considerations, which hold
good for all thermo-dynamic machines, to the treatment of the
steam engine, some remarks with respect to the behavior of va-
pors at a maximum density must first be brought forward.
* Phil. Mag., July, 1851.
188 _ R. Clausius on the Application of the
I have already in my former paper of 1850, on the motive
power of heat, developed the equations which represent the two
incipal theorems of the mechanical theory of heat in their ap-
plications to vapors at a maximum density, and have applied
them to deduce various conclusions.
As I have however introduced in my last memoir “on a
change in the form of the second principal theorem of the me-
chanical theory of heat,” a somewhat different mode of repre-
senting the whole subject, I consider it, as already mentioned,
more advantageous for the sake of greater simplicity and breadth
of view, to sup only this last memoir as known. :
therefore again deduce in a different way the equations referred
to from the results obtained in it.
In this memoir it was assumed, in order to apply the general |
equations first established to a somewhat more special case, that —
the only foreign force acting upon the variable body which de-
rves consideration in determining the external work, was an ~
external pressure, the force of which was equal at all points of
the surface, and whose direction was every where perpendicular —
to it, and that further this pressure always changed only so —
slowly, and consequently was at every instant only so little dif —
ferent from the expansive force of the body acting opposite to it,
that in calculation the two might be considered as equal. If
then we denote by p the pressure, by v the volume, cide T the —
absolute temperature of the body, which last we will introduce |
into the formulas instead of the temperature as estimated from —
the freezing point, because they take a simpler form in this way, —
this be acakinlibek: a
jules
the equations deduced for
d (dQ\_ a (dQ\_, dp
oy AS) £(8)aadt
dQ dp
(rv) ds =A.T or
case of vapors at a maximum density,
11. Let the given mass of the substance whose vapor is to be ~
considered be M, and let this be contained in a completely closed
extensible vessel, the part m in a state of vapor, and the re- _
maining part, M—m, in a fluid state. This mixed mass is now
to form the variable body to which the previous equations are
to be applied. sigs a
If the temperature 7’ of the mass and its volume v—that is —
to say, the content of the vessel—are given, then the condition —
of the mass, so far as it here comes under consideration, is thereby —
completely determined. Since ome the vapor by supposition
always remains in contact with the liquid, and consequently at
a maximum density; its condition, as well as that of the liquid, —
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 189
depends only on the temperature 7 It only remains to decide
whether the quantity of the two parts which are present in dif-
ferent conditions is determined. For this purpose the condition
is given, that these two parts must together exactly fill up the
content of the vessel. we therefore denote the volume of the
unit of weight of steam, at its maximum density, at the tempera-
sare T by s, and that of a unit of weight of fluid by o, we must
ave:
v=m.s+(M—m)e
=m(s—o)+ Mo,
The quantity s occurs in what follows, only in the combination
(s—<), and we will therefore introduce a special letter for this
difference, putting
uUu=s—9,
by which the previous equation becomes
6) | v=mu+M,
and hence i
(7) m= RBA :
sac : m : |
By this equation, m is determined as a function of 7 and », since
u and o are functions of 7. :
12. In order now to be able to apply equations (111) _ o
our case, we must first determine the quantities Ty nd oH
Let us first assume that the vessel expands so much that its
content increases by dv, then a quantity of heat must be thereb
communicated to the mass, which will in general, be represented
b 404
vy or V.
Now since this quantity of heat is only consumed in the forma-
tion of vapor which takes ~~ during the ee ee it may
also be represented, if the heat of ev be denoted for
the unit of mass by 7, by the expression
pay
and we may also put
dQ dm
“dv dv
whence, since according to (7),
dm
we find (8) Toa’
Tf we assume in the‘second Ree that the ‘temperature of the
mass, while the content of the vessel remains constant, is in-
*
190 R. Clausius on the Application of the
creased by d7, the quantity of heat necessary, will be repre-
sented generally by
dQ
a? dT.
This quantity of heat consists of three portions—1. The fluid
portion, 4—m of the whole mass, must be warmed by d 7, for
which purpose, if c denotes the specific heat of the liquid, the
ares of heat (M—m)cd T is necessary.
The portion m in the state of vapor must in like manner
be ‘amen by dT, but will thereby at the same time be so much
mpressed, th at for the increased temperature T+d 7, it is
arte at a maximum density. The quantity of heat ‘which
must be communicated toa unit of mass of vapor during its
compression, in order that it shall have at every density pre-
cisely the temperature for which this density is a maximum, we
shall denote for an increase of temperature of d 7, in general by
T in which h is a magnitude which is previously unknown as
to its value, and even as to itssign. The quantity of heat neces-
sary for our case, will hence be en mhd %
3. In the process of heating, a small ciiasttiey of the previously -
fluid portion, passes into the state of vapor, whith is Tep
generally by a7 Re pe J, and which consumes the quantity of heat
PES Ss AY ae
m du _M do
—s - ‘ av ee . “ale ¥.
If we add these three quantities of heat together, and Pat their
sum equal to aoa T we have
"3 Q r r du
(9) wa (5 a) m(h— o-<. 77
+ d dQ a
13. The first of these expressions for ic and —~, must now
aT” :
also, as is signified in equation (rI1), be y ee the first 4
with respect to 7; and the last with respect tov. If we co :
moreover that the quantity J is constant, the quantities u,% 7,
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 191
cand h, only functions of 7, and the quantity m only a function
of Zand v we obtain
d (dQ 1 dr eo du
C9) a ie) = aah op
d (dQ So fg oe du\dm
arya is sara
: dm . 1
or, if we put for Tp 8 value m
d (dQ _h-c r du
“ za :
By substituting the expressions given in (10), (11), and (8), in
(m1) and (1v) we obtain the sought equations, which represent
€ two principal theorems of the mechanical theory of heat for
_ Vapors at a maximum density, namely
dr dp
(v.) ap teh 4 4.
dp
(v1.) r= A. Pur
and from the combination of the two, we also obtain ae te
dr fies
(12) art ¢—h= Via
14. With the help of these equations we will now consider a
case which will so often occur in what follows, that it is advan-
eous to fix, a priori, the results which refer to it.
8 assumed that the previously considered vessel
_ the form of vapor will change, and besides, a a or negative
ternal wo vy P
roduces the pres-
Sure of the vapor, since in the change of volume the pressure of
the form of vapor, the volume v and the work W are
termi i ¥.
ad
roe dv + [(—mebmh-br Fle7.
192 R. Clausius on the Application of the
must be equated to zero, in consequence of the condi-
tion now laid down that heat must neither be communicated to
nor taken from the mass. In this way we obtain, if we simply
write dm for
4 v5 a Fe ys
the equation
18 rdm+m(h-c)d T+ Mcd T= 0.
If we substitute in this, according to (12)
nga dr) F-.
a ti doe
and again write simply dr for iA
of 7, we have
rdm4mdr-dT4+Med T=0,
a7? T, since ris only a fancting
or (14) d(mr) - 7d T-4+Med T=0.
If we divide this equation by 7, and remember that
(mr MP) (mr
ae id T=i(F),
we obtain
(15) a(") +Mc 70:
As the specific heat of a liquid changes but slowly with the
temperature, we will in what follows, always consider the que
tity c as constant. Then the previous eps may |
grated at once, and Bt
7 = ae Me log 7’=const,
or if the initial values of 7, ee m, be ee by 71,7, m1,
(vu) pets
By this equation, m is also pen oi as a fanotion of the tem-
perature, if r, as a function of the temperature, can be a poe
considered as known.
In order to give an approximate view of the behavior of this
function, I have collected together in the apa table some —
“ |
values calculated for a particular case,
that the vessel at the beginning contains no guid water, but 38
exactly filled with steam at the maximum density, so th
at f
he previous equation m, is to be put equal to M, and let now
an expansion of the vessel take place. the vessel should be
ee oe ee eee scr an
ae ee ee
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 198
compressed, we could not make the assumption that in the be-
ginning no fluid water is present, because then the vapor would
hot remain at a maximum density, but would be overheated b
the heat produced during the compression. In the expansion
on the other hand, the steam remains not only at a maximum
density, but a part of it is in fact condensed, and it is precisely
the diminution of m produced thereby, to which the table re-
fers. The initial temperature is assumed as 150° C., and corres-
ponding values of 7 are given for the times when the tempera-
ture has sunk by the expansion to 125°, 100°, ete. The tem-
eeatnre estimated from the freezing point is denoted by 4, as
eretofore, to distinguish it from the absolute temperature repre-
sented by 7.
| t | 150° | 195° | 100° | 50 | 50° | 95°
| on | 1 | 0°956 | oo | 0°866 | 0'821 | 0-776 |
M |
For this purpose we only need to substitute in the equation (vi1,)
for r, the expression given in (vi,) whereby we obtain
i hs od ) _ bo lo a
(v11.) atet k mmong u,(35 ; oa z F .
The differential coefficient oe which occurs here is to be looked
on as known; p itself is known as a function of the temperature,
and consequently by this equation, the product mu is determined,
and from it we obtain by addition of Mo the sought quantity v.
In the following sable; there is again collected a series ¢
values of the fraction aa which are deduced from this equation,
for the same case to which the foregoing table relates, For the
Sake of comparison, those values of = are also added, which we
should obtain if the two assumptions usually made heretofore in
the theory of the steam engine were correct. (1.) that the stean
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO, 65.—-SEPT., 1856,
25
194 -R. Clausius on the Application of the
in expanding remains exactly at a maximum density, without
partially precipitating, (2.) that it.obeys the laws of Mariotte
and Gay Lussac. According to these assumptions we should
_ have
t 150° 125° | 100° 45° 50° 25°
“ 1 | 188 | so0 | 923 | o57 | ga4
z
oes"
eel ts) oan ae Lent |. a0 ies
pk,
we:
17. It remains finally to determine also the work done during
the change of volume. For this purpose we have generally the
equation
(16.) W=f| pd
1
Now according to equation (6) if o be regarded as constant:
dv=d(mu)
whence pdv=pd(mu)
for which we may also write
(17.) pdv=d (mup)— muha 7.
We might put in this for must the expression given by equa- :
tion (vit) and then execute the integration. We obtain the re- ;
sult however at once ina rather more convenient form by the —
following substitution. According to (v1) we have :
dp.., ie 1 mr
and from this by employing equation (14):
dp 1 |
mura T= 5 [4 (mr) + Med T}.
Hence (17) becomes
1
p du=d(mup) — [a (mr) + Med 7),
and by integrating this equation we obtain
1
(tx.) W=mup—m,u,p,+5[m, r,—mr+ Me(T,-T)]
whence W may be calculated, since the quantities mr and mu
are already known from the foregoing equations, a
CS ee
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 195
I have also carried out this calculation for the above special
case, whereby I have obtained the values given in the table for
Tr that is for the work done during the expansion by the unit
of mass. The kilogram is selected as the unit of mass, and
which 1 kilogram of water evaporates at the temperature of
150° and under a corresponding pressure, the value 18700.
t | 150° 25°
|
4 | 0 11800 | 28200 | 35900 | 49300
é 18. We turn our atten-
tion now tothe consideration
125° : 100°
75° | 50°
om
|
|
matic figure, which is only
intended to facilitate the
general view of the whole
series of processes connected.
with the action of a com-
From this, a portion of the = =
passes into the cylin- ;
der B, and forces the piston to a certain height. Then the cylin-
der is cut off from the boiler, and the steam contained in it, lifts
the piston still higher b expansion. The cylinder is thereupon
put into connexion with the space Cc, which shall represent the
condenser. We shall assume with respect to this, that it is not
kept cool by ee he gs water but by cooling from without, which,
as above remarked, produces no important difference in the re-
Sults, but simplifies the consideration of the subject, Let the con-
D ee
= 5 is the equivalent of work for the unit of heat, and the above number signi-
fies that the quantity of heat which is able to warm 1 kilogram of water from 0°
to 1°. when gg into mechanical work gives a quantity of work equal to
196 R. Clausius on the Application of the
stant temperature of the condenser be called 7,. During the con-
nection of the cylinder with the condenser, the piston goes back
again through the whole space which it previously passed over,
and thereby all the steam which did not of itself pass directl
into the condenser is driven into this and is here condensed. It
only remains in order to complete the cyclus of operations, to
bring back into the boiler the liquid which has arisen from the
condensation of the steam. ‘This purpose is served by the small
ump D, whose action is so regulated that during the ascent of
the piston, it draws up exactly as much liquid from the conden-
ser as has been brought into this last by the condensation of the
steam; and this quantity of liquid is then forced into the boiler
by the descent of the piston. When this has here become heated
again to the temperature 7',, everything is again in the initial
condition, and the same series of processes can begin anew. We
have here then to deal with a complete circular process.
n common steam engines, the steam passes into the cylinder
not only from one side, but alternately from both. This however
produces only the difference that during an ascent and descent
of the piston, two circular processes take place instead of one,
and it is sufficient in this case also to determine the work for one
of them in order to be able to deduce the whole work which is
done during any time.
19, In this determination we will, as is customary, consider the
cylinder as a shell which is impenetrable to heat, neglecting the
exchange of heat which takes place during one stroke between
the walls of the cylinder and the steam. The mass in the cylin-
not pass into the overheated condition during the expansion
in fine drops, and sare ae can rapidly participate in the —
Ww
changes of bie i pea ich the steam undergoes during the
expansion, we shall make no sensible error if we consider in cal-
culation the temperature of the whole mass in the cylinder as _
he same for every determined instant of time.
Furthermore, not to make the formulas too complicated at th
outset, we will in the first place determine the whole work which
is done by the pressure of the steam without taking into account
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 197
It is moreover to be remarked with respect to the friction of
the piston in the cylinder, that the work consumed in overcomin
it is not to be considered as entirely lost, for by this friction heat
is generated, and thereby the interior of the cylinder kept warmer
than it otherwise would be, and consequently the force of the
steam is increased.
Finally, as it is advantageous to learn in the first place the
action of the most complete machine possible before we study
the influence of the particular imperfections which naturally
a go is present
during a circular process, may be expressed without further cal-
culation, with the help of the results obtained above, and give a
simple expression as the sum. Let the whole mass which passes
during the ascent of the piston from the boiler into the cylinder,
be called UM, and let the part m, be in the form of vapor, and
the part M—m, liquid. the space which this mass occupies is,
if m, signifies the value of « belonging to 7',,
m,u,+Me.
The piston is accordingly lifted as high as this space underneath
it becomes free, and as this happens under the action of the pres-
sure p, pepe 7, the work done during this first process,
which we may W,, is
(18) W,=m,u, p,+Mop,.
Let the expansion which now follows be so far continued,
until the temperature of the mass enclosed in the cylinder has
sunk from the value 7, to a second given value, 7,. The work
which is done hereby, which we may call W,, is found immedi-
ately from equation (1x), if 7, is assumed in it, as the final tem-
, and also if the corresponding values are substituted for
the other quantities occurring in the equation, namely :
198 R. Clausius on the Application of the
1
(19.) Wa=m,%,p,—m, 4 Pit al" Pr, —-Mot24Mc(T, -T,)].
Tn the forcing down of the piston, which now oe the mass
which at the end of the expansion occupied the spac
My Uy + Mo
is driven from the cylinder into the condenser, whereby the con-
stant counter pressure p, is to be overcome. The negative work
which is thereby done by this pressure is: ;
(20.) W,=—m,u,p,—Mop,. :
While now the piston of the small pump rises so high ee -
space Mo beeomes free under it, the pressure p, W
place in the condenser acts in its favor, and does the Fs gg
(21.) W,=M p,.
Finally, at the descent of this piston, the pressure p, which
takes place in the boiler must be overcome, and does therefore
the negative work:
By the midition of these five eyinitlatiog wi obtedh for the whole —
work done during the circular process, by the pressure of the —
steam, or as we may also say, by the heat, which we may call
W’, the expression 7
() Wea > slr 1—Mot,+Me (T, -T,)|+m,u, (P2-Po)-
From this equation, the quantity m, must be eliminated. This
quantity, if we substitute for w, the value deduced from (v1),
occurs only in the ae m,7,, and for this product equa-
tion (Vil) gives the expressio
rn
Mefg=M, Seger 7 Sop stot 7
By substituting this expression we obtain an equation in which —
ae known quantities occur on the right side, since the masses —
, and Jf and the temperatures T',, T, and tr, are assumed as
immediately given, and the quantities 7, p sud & a are supposed 4
to be known as functions of the temperature. 3
21. If in equation Be we = T, equal to T,, we obtain the |
work for the case in which machine works without ony :
sion, namely : 4
(23) W=m,u, (Pp, Pa)
sae Co et ccd i ah go ee oe i ge OI RG a
Mechanical Theory o Heat to the Steam Engine. 199
If on the other hand, we hake the assumption, that the ex-
gp is driven until the steam by the expansion has cooled
om the temperature of the boiler to that of the condenser,
which, it is true, it is not completely possible to do, but whic
still forms the limiting case to which we must approximate as
closely as possible, we need only put T',=7', whereby we obtain
(24) W'=-[m,r,—myro+ Me(T,-7,)].
If we also eliminate from this m,r, by means of the before-
cited Siuktion, in which also we must put T,=T,, we have
*
(x) We= “[™. Big 5 pal °+ MT, - -T, +7, log f »)|:
22. If we write the tren equation in the allowing form,
(25) W=m eee pit Me(2- ye Ait oz los 7°),
~ two pone whi = occur herein, Me (7,- r. >) and m mts
comes from the pesmi in the fluid state, with the temperature
o up to 7’, and the last represents the quantity of heat which
is required to convert the portion m, at the temperature 7’, into
m, is little smaller than i, the last quantity of heat
is far , Breaier than the first.
will bring the factor belonging to Mc(T,-T,) into a
soca hat different form, in order to be able to compare with
one other more conveniently the two factors, with which these
0 quantities of heat are multiplied in equation (25). If then,
for the sone of abbreviation, we introduce the letter z with the
Significatio
Taomit~,
T,
_ * The foregoing equations, which represent k under the two simplifying
an is te osushastnet $14, bad bed develo loped by m along
(26) z=
nded
comp that Rankine had not considered the circumstance t
wat liquid i oo a with ~ steam at its entrance into the cylinder. By
the earlier te ea of this paper t eating J was ee for this rior of my inves-
nevertheless the correspondence was in so far a gratification to me, as it
ave me a guarantee that the mode of oteettng the subject employed was really
& natural one.
200 R. Clausius on the Application of the
we have
= SAU od
= es
LF
7, ==1=z
and we therefore obtain
M+
oe Y ee 1-z |
ET log phe) p
= G4 9+F +e)
Zz
zZ 22 Zs
odie Rh |
Sa BAW GES as
Equation (25) or (X1) thus becomes
(27) W=m,r, Zt Me(,-7.)5-(
1 Z g2
tists
é Y expansion to the temperature of the condenser,
without following singly the different processes of which the
circular process consists. In this case, namely, the circular pro-
cess 1s invertible in all its parts—we may imagine that the evap-
oration takes place in the condenser at the temperature 7’,, and
that the mass I, of which the part m, is va r, and the part
(M4—m,) is liquid, passes into the cylinder, org lifts the piston ;
that then during the descent of the piston, the steam is first —
all pump, the
boiler into the condenser, an
Cn RO ES Pla 5 lesen ne
.
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 201
maa(er-n/'59)
Q, signifies herein for our case, the heat communicated in the
boiler to the mass M, and we have therefore
Q,=m, ry) +Me (7 Te
Q1
oe : d ; se
In determining the integral [<2 the two single quantities of
fe
heat contained in Q,, Mc (7,—7,) and m,r, must be particu-
larly considered. In order to execute the integration for the
first, we may write the element of heat d @ in the form Med 7
then this portion of the integral becomes
} 5
Me eB FH sit
To - :
During the communication of the last quantity of heat, the
temperature is constantly equal to 7’,, and the portion of the in-
: mr
tegral relating to this quantity of heat is therefore simply wae
‘ 1
By substituting these values, the above expression for W’ be-
comes the following.
is
W'=—[m,r, 4Me(2,-7,)- T(" 14 al 108 7.)]
1 T,-T, T
=] m7, T. + Me(7,-7,47, lg 7°) |
and this is the same expression as that contained in equation
(XI), which we have previously found by the successive deter-
mination of the single quantities of work done during the circu-
ess
process,
24. Hence it follows that 7 the tem res at which the
nee conveying the action of the heat takes up the heat delivered
given, then the steam engine, under the suppositions made in
deducing equation (x1) is a perfect machine, inasmuch as for a
etinite quantity of heat communicated to it, it does as much
oe to the mechanical theory of heat, is possible
at the same temperatures,
The matter is otherwise however if we do not regard these
temperatures as given a priori, but consider them as a variable
element which must be taken into consideration in judging the
machine, In consequence of the fact that the liquid, during its
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856,
26
i
202 R. Clausius on the Application of the
warming and evaporation, has much lower temperatures than
the fire, and that thus the heat which is communicated to it
must pass from a higher to a lower temperature, there is in V
an uncompensated transformation which is not reckoned in the
calculation, which with the reference to making the heat useful
- occasions a great loss. The work which can be obtained in the
steam engine from the quantity of heat, m,7,+Mce(7,—T,)= Q,
is, as we see from equation (27), somewhat smaller than
Qa, T, - To
A; See =
If therefore the same quantity of heat could be communicated
to a variable body at the temperature of the fire, which may
called 7’, while the temperature corresponding to the subtrac-
_ tion of heat, remains as formerly 7, the work possibly to
obtained in this case according to equation (4) would be repre-
sented by
oS ae
—ar-.
A
In order to be able to compare the values of these expressions
in some examples, let the temperature ¢, of the condenser be »
fixed at 50° C., and let the temperatures 110°, 150°, and 180° C.
be assumed for the boiler, of which the first two correspond —
about to the low pressure engine and to the common high pres-
sure engine, and the last is to be regarded as about the limit of ©
the temperatures engines in practice. For these
in steam .
cases, the fraction depending on the temperatures has the follow: -
ing value.
ty | 110° 150° 180° |
|
fF rae 0-157 | 0-286 | 0287
‘
“g
er ae sa oil
Whereas the corresponding value for the temperature of / of
° ©. is 0-74 z
the fire, if we assume this only at
25. It is hereby easy to perceive what S. Carnot and after —
him many other authors have asserted, that in order to arrange
portant advantage over steam engines, when we succeed in mak- :
ing them work at considerable higher temperatures than steam —
tures.
ever also be obtained with overheated steam, since as soon
the vapor is separated from the liquid, we may heat it still fur- :
ee SL eee Senna SC set oe es ee ee
Dee re tanh
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 208
ther with as little danger as if it were a permanent gas. Ma-
chines which employ the steam in this condition can unite many
advantages of steam engines with those of air engines, and a
practical result is therefore sooner to be expected from them,
than from the air engines.
second more volatile substance is applied, the interval (7’,— i)
is made larger because 7’, is made lower. The idea has sug-
gested itself in the same manner to increase the interval on the
6. Besides the imperfection of the common steam engines
just mentioned, which is founded in their nature itself, these ma-
chines have many other defects, which are to be attributed more
to their practical construction. ae,
One of these has already been considered in the above devel-
opments, and is comprised in equation (x), namely, that the ex-
pansion cannot by any means be carried so far that the steam in
the cylinder reaches the temperature of the condenser. If we
take, for instance, the temperature of the boiler at 150°, and that
of the condenser at 50°, we see from the table of § 16 that for this
purpose the expansion must continue to 26 times the original
volume, while in reality in consequence of many evils which
occur in high expansions, we usually allow it to reach only 8 or
4, and at the utmost, 10 times the volume.
Two other defects, on the other hand, have been expressly
excluded in what precedes, namely, in the first place that the
pressure of the steam in one part of the cylinder is less than in
the boiler, and in the other part greater than in the condenser—
and secondly, the presence of the injurious space.
We must therefore now enlarge our former views, in such a
manner that these imperfections shall also be taken into consid-
eraflon
(To be concluded.)
204 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States.
ART. XV1.—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States ;
= by ASA GRAY.
special aptitude for this kind of research. JI may. how- E
Pa:
ever, collect and arrange the principal data; for the use of those
The work,* which forms the basis of the following statistics of —
the botany of the Northern United States, has now been ex-
the north of it, and those chiefly on the coast of the low south- _
iver, and thence due east again, the small quadrangle thus ex-
* Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States; second edition; inclu: —
ding Virginia, Kentucky, and all east of the Mississippi: arranged : ak
Natural System; by ASA ed according to t
vant). With 14 plates, illustrating the Genera of the Crypt Fe
George P. Putnam & Co., 1856, J ryptogamia. New Yor
ng
AY, (the Mosses and Liverworts by Wa. S. Suture —
re eR URES ee Way
ee ae
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States. 205
crosses the parallel is Jussiea repens, This sparingly extends up
Ses about as
far north as on the Atlantic coast,
In the elevated region through which the middle of our
southern boundary passes, great numbers of northern plants are
of course found to extend much farther southwar
er.
The northern boundary, being that between the United States
and British America, varies through about five degrees of lati-
tude, and nearly embraces Canada proper on the east and on the
. * It would apparently exclude from the flora of the Northern States the follow-
1es —
ing spec
Gordonia Lasianthus. Benzoin melissefolium.
Stuartia Virginica. Tetranthera geniculata,
Zanthoxylum Carolinianum. Stillingia sylvatica.
Berchemia volubilis. Quercus virens.
Viburnum o um. “ cinerea.
Mitreola petiolata. Sagittaria falcata.
Liatris odoratissima. Burmannia biflora,
panicula Tillandsia usneoides,
Sericocarpus tortifolius. Smilax Walteri.
Chrysopsis gossypina. " ceolata, |
Baccharis glomeruliflora, Zygadenus glaberrimus,
Kalmia hirsuta, Mayaca Michauxii.
ex ine. Pepalanthus flavidus,
“ myrtifolia, Lachnocaulon
n, Vilfa Virgini
emium sempervirens, Ctenium Ameri
Forsteronia diffurmis, Uniola paniculata.
Olea Americana, : Paspal istichur
Fraxinus platycarpa. gitar
Carol:
little beyond lat. 388° 30’. Two other characteristic trees, viz, the Palmetto and
Magnolia grandiftora, stop about as far short of our line as the two former pass
206 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
west; so that the volume in question probably contains nearly
all the plants of Canada Hast, south of the St. Lawrence and of
The siapplcit ty of our flora, as a purely northern temperate —
one, is preserved by the absence throughout our limits of high
mountains and of any considerable extent of elevated land, es-
* The following Pheenogamons plants, contained in Prof. Agassiz’s published list
of the plants gathered on the north shore of Lak drei ee in age cee made
in 1848, are not included in the Botany of the Northern Sta
Ribes oxyacanthoides, Tofieldia aa vel palustris.
Lonicera involucrata. Carex Vahlii,
Corispermum hyanoplfobiei:
To which I may add, that obscure and ambiguous Grass, the Aira melicoides,
yes ES te oe The last two, viz., Tofieldia palustris and Carex
Vahl: ostichoi in Prof. Whit:
claim ad-
ra. But Iwas not a ~~ Saye t re i fell within
graphically and
ins to the northern shore, winks ie veustnion. co to display a
e the
subalpine character, which it spire not the south side, I determined to
9 .
+ This list includes the few j 1 as found on the immediate coast of —
Lake Superior, altho ee one or the seven, aon Ribee oxyacanthoides, is truly
Canadian. Three of them e from the northw: t and geo and three from the
d
udson’s Bay country. I pat the antrédas a wth eckoni oning ari these
iat
Hesperix matronalis, Sisymbryum Sophia, &e.: also all those <hbncicnath ao
by Pursh, seme have not been sg d by later observ.
ruleum,
Thlaspi peste ®, Corispermum hyssopifolium.
Linum perenn leaguus argentea,
On eae Lambert en plant of | ge palustris. a
ue era (S piens.
Ribes bes hades Gone mee ¥ \ s(Spiranthes, meng te
Lonicera involuerata, Ponce vast melicoides. (Pow yy’
Hieracium,vulgatum, Kivuitee Dureyetess et Hooke mate
Nardosmia frigida. Allosorus acrostichoides,
icaria inodo!
So far as we know at present, roar only 29 indigenous
and Ferns (of Mee 12 are also E an) would therefore te added by or oa
oo hat is, the abtniey ordsting the north of the awrence and
the Great Lakes
‘
4
‘ ‘
a
ere SNRs ee en eae
a
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 207°
pecially at the north, and the consequent paucity of truly alpine
or even subalpine species. We have an alpi ion inde
ern part of New England and New York, between or near lat.
44° and 45°. The White Mountains of New Hampshire fur-
nish far the larger part, viz., the range strictly so called, with
six or seven square miles (taken horizontally) of alpine region,
of which the highest point slightly exceeds 6200 feet in eleva-
tion, and its lower limit is about 4500 feet above the level of
the sea, and Mount Lafayette (reaching to 5200 feet) along with
other smaller patches, together making up almost as much more.
Mount Katahdin in Maine (about 5300 feet high) may furnish a
square mile or so of alpine region. The Green Mountains of
Vermont (with a maximum elevation of 4360 feet) present mere
vestiges of alpine vegetation in one or two places; and two or
three summits of the Adirondack Mountains of northeastern
New York (with a maximum elevation said to exceed 5400) are»
of a more decidedly alpine character, but apparently of small
extent and far from rich in species.
The southern shore of Lake Superior affords no alpine and
perhaps no strictly subalpine species; nor do any occur in the
anerogamia and highest Cryptogamia: and although very
much still remains to be done, yet we are now in condition
profitably to compare our vegetation with that of Europe, and
also, though less critically, with that of other parts of the north-
ern temperate zone. ee
The following tables exhibit the principal elements of our
flora, and some of its relations to the Kuropean, &c. aie
* The White Top Mountain in Virginia, just within its southern boundary, is eom-
Siiay said to be about 6000 feet in elevation; but this is probably an exaggeration.
208 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States.
List He the Natural Orders of the Flora of the Northern United rs
the number of Genera and Species comprised in them,—distinguish-
ing the introduced and the indigenous Species,—and of t the indi igo
Species common to this district and to Europe.
Cuass I. DICOTYLEDONZ S. EXOGEN 2.
WholeNo. — — Sit baie a No, of Indigo
Orders. of Gener — naventve of Species, ——— F cm ,
Susctass. [. :
GIOSP i
Ranunculacesz 21 20 6 55 49 10:5 a
Magnoli 2 2 6 6 iM
Anonacez, 1 1 1 1 we
Menispermacez, 3 3 3 3
berida 5 5 1 6 5 2
_Nelumbiacez, 1 1 1 1 =
mbacez, 1 1 1 3 a
pheacez, 2 2 3 3 1 oe
Sarraceniaceer, 1 1 2 2 a
Papaveracee, 6 2 5 7 2 :
ariacez, 4 3 1 " 6 :
Crucifere, 20 16 14 60 46 1} =
Capparidacez, 1 1 1 tf
acer, 1 1 1 4
Violacex, 2 2 a1 5.48 koe LS
Cistacez, 3 3 7 7 ,
Droseracex, 1 1 4 4 9-408
Parnassiacez, 1 1 3 3 1:
Hypericaceze, 3 3 hol 19 18 .
Elatinaceex, 1 1 1 1 o
Caryophyllacez, 19 11 17 47 30 18. 3
Portulacacer, 4 3 1 5 4 fa
Malvacez, 9 7 6 15 9 2
Tiliacew, 1 rf 2 2 *
Camelliaceze, 2 2 2 2 ae
Linacez, 1 1 2 2 :
Oxalidacez, 1 1 3 3 ae
Geraniaceex, 2 1 2 5 3 rs
Balsami 1 1 2 2
Limnanthacex, 1 1 1 1
Rutaceex, 2 $ : 3 3
Anacardiacex, 1 1 6 6
Vitacer, 2 2 4 7
Rhamnacez, 4 4 1 7 ee
Celastracez. 2 2 3 3
Sapindacez, 4 4 1 11 10
; ygalacez, 1 1 13 13
eguminose, 36 33 14 105 91 4
Rosacezx, 18 17 5 76 71 16
moo
Co
Ord | No, of th dace a yaa No.| radigena ie
Jeders, 0. Ta 20d of Species, | [digenous| Spe
Genera. kone Sp Species. em
Calycanthaces, 1 se ss 3 a
Melasto . 1 1 3 3
Lythraceze, 4 4 1 8 4
Onagracee, 9 9 36 36
| asacee, 1 1 1 1
. Cactacee, 1 1 1 1
Grossulacez, 1 1 q "
__ Passifloraceze, 1 1 2 2
Cucurbitacer, 3 3 3 3
Crassulacex 3 3 1 6 5
Saxifragacez, 11 11 22 22
Hamamelacer, 3 3 3 3
Umbelliferee, 26 21 5 42 37
Araliacer, 1 ] 6 6
Cornacez, 2 2 1l 11
Caprifoliacez, 7 4 27 27.
Rubiacez, 9 9 1 24 23
Valerianacex, 2 2 z1 8 7
ipsaceze, 1 1 1
Composite, 83 67 27 300 273
Lobeliaceze, 1 1 12 12
_ Campanulacee, 2 2 5 5
AS ricacese, 27 27 62 62 1
. Galacinez, 1 “3 1 1
Aquifoliaceze, 2 2 10 10
Styracaceze, 3 3 5 5
Ebenacee, 1 1 1 1
Sapotacem, 1 1 2 2
___ Plantaginacew, 1 1 2 8 6]
Plumbaginacew, 1 1 1 Cok ce: b
Primulacew, 11 10 1 Ling AG.
Pentibulacea, 2 2 = 3 a4
Ignoniacese, 4 2 2
Oesbeislllies: 4 4 5 5
Scrophulariaces, 26 24 11 65 54
nthaces, ag | 2 3 3
Verbenacer, 4 2 10 7
_ Labiate, 83 21 22 71 49
__ Borraginacee, il 5 25 16
_ Hydrophyllacee, | 4 4 11 11
_ Polemoniacer, 4 4 12 12
Convolvulacez, 7 5 5 20 15
a Solanacee, 6 2 6 10 4
_Gentianacer, 9 8 3 " B
a. acer, 3 3
: Petes 5 4 1 22 21
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856.
27
Or ©
a ee
210 _—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Crass. T—continued.
Rik of Gen: No. ae ae aa
Orders. Week Pept por oe ety and of of Bpelies No tenon is "Species
= Genera. “Species. yo Species. oo
Oleace 5 4 a 10 9
Aristolochiaces, g 2 6 6
Nyctaginacee, 1 1 1 1
laccaceze, 1 1 1 1 :
Chenopodiaceze, 9 7 11 21 10 6 :
marantacez, 6 5 9 14 5 a
Polygonace + 3 10 32 22 6 a
Lauract 4 4 5 5 a
Thymeleacee, 1 1 1 1 a
Eleagnacee, 1 1 1 1 .
Santalacee, 2 2 3 3
Loranthaceer, 1 1 1 1 :
Saururace 1 1 1 1
Ceratophyllacee, 1 1 1 1 1
Callitrichacese 1 1 3 3 3
ostemaceee, 1 1 1 1
Euphorbiaceae, 9 9 iS 33 28 ‘
Empetraceee, 2 2 2 2 led
rticacere, 11 10 4 19 15 Ls
Platanacee, 1 1 1 1
Juglandacee, 2 2 9 9 a
Cupulifere, 6 6 25 25 La
yricacere, 2 2 3 3 lee
Betulacez, 2 e 10 10 4
bel. ‘tikes
GYMNOSPERMA, big
Conifer, 8 8 20 20
Total, 622 522 223 | 1713 | 1490
Ciass II. MONOCOTYLEDONE seu ENDOGEN A,
Araceze 6 6 7 7
Typhacee, 2 2 7 7
Lemnacer, 1 1 5 5
Naiadaces, 5 5 16 16
Alismaces, 5 5 12 12
Hydrocharidacee, 3 3 8 3
Burmanniacee, 1 1 1 1
Orchidacee, 17 iz 51 51
Amaryllidacee, 4 - 4 4
Hemodoracee, 3 3 , 4 4
Bromeliaceee, 1 1 1 1
Tridaceze, 2 2 6 6
Dioscoreacese, 1 1 1 ae
‘ 3 3 18 18
Statistics of t. te Flora of the Northern States. 211
Whole |No. of Gen- No a a OS : of our
Orders. | No, of Indigenous [sl ral fee and 04 Pisce og | Taigenou | Species :
then oe A pecien. | te _ pecies, Europe,
Liliacere, i 12 9 4 28 24 5
Melanthacer, 12 12 21 21 1
uncace 3 3 26 26 14
Pontederiacere, 3 3 4 4
Commelynacez, 2 2 6 6
Xyridace 2 3 4 ae
cme i 3 3 5 5 1
Cypera e, 16 16 1 214 2138 48
Gra ihincs 65 55 32 194 162 32
172 159 37 638 601 141
Total von ea 794 | 681 | 260 | 2351 | 2091 | 321
é
Crass II]. ACROGEN A.
fee 1 1 10 Me BE Bea
20 20 49 49 20
saat | 2 2 12 12 6
ht thbew 9 9 4 4 1
rsileacese =f
we 1 oe Ss eT ee
Crass ITV. ANOPHYTA.
Musci, 80 80 0 394 394 255
Hepatice, 38 38 0 108 108 65
Total, 118 118 0 502 502 320
Cryptoga- |
mie, Cl beat | 148 143°} 0 577 577 | 355
Total of the 4 | a he
_. Classes, < ~ t 937 | 824 | 260 2928 | 26
It is plain enough that the numbers in this tabular view must
be essentially influenced throughout by one’s views as to the lim-
itation of species and genera. In the hands of a few botanists,
the flora of the Northern States might exhibit a somewhat
aller number of species than it here does; but with most,
there would undoubtedly be a stronger tendency in the opposite
direction. As it is obviously impossible at present to reduce the
various ideas and shades of difference that prevail respecting
Species to one common standard, all that can be done is to indi-
cate the bias, or what astronomers call the ao ite 4
each author, which must be duly considered when diff
a ee
212 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
the species here received, and give results quite incommeasurable :
wit wn. I
ts ag
The numerical comparison of our Phenogamous with our
Cryptogamous species, however interesting it might become in
a complete flora, is here of little moment; only the higher Cryp-
togamia being included. Moreover, it should be noted that the
Musci and Hepatic enumerated in the above re 2 are those of —
a geographical area about twice that of the higher or Acrogen-
ous Cryptogamia and the Pheenogamia. For the distinguished
American muscologist who elaborated these two orders for our —
‘Botany of the Northern States,’ anxious to afford facilities for
the study of our mosses throughout the country, has included all —
known to him within the whole United States east of the Mis- —
sissippi, and even some as yet found only to the north and west —
of these limits. It is evident, also, that the number of forms —
admitted as species is proportionally larger in these two orders —
than in the rest of the work. On the other hand it is to be con-
sidered how little our mosses have as yet been collected and —
the 260 introduced species, most if not all of which have become
denizens of our country since its settlement by Europeans, and
in consequence of that settlement;—leaving the question of their
origin, introduction, &c., for future consideration. Their admis«
* Thus Mr. Watson, as cited by Alph. DeCandolle (Geogr. Bot, p. 511) enumet
ates 602, out of 1428 phenogamous British plants, as common to Great Britain and
America, I count only 321 out of 2091 p ies indigenous to the —
Northern United States as indigenous also to Europe ao
_ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern” States. 213
The numerical elements of our Pheenogamous flora, consid-
ered as to classes, are, as the tabular view shows:
Dicotyledones or Exogense, 1490 ies in 522 genera.
Monocotyledonex or Endogene, 601 Te 159 ee
>
Total Phenogamous indigenous plants, 2091 « ty il
Or about 24 Dicotyledonous to one Monocotyledonous species.
Their distribution among the 132 eS
in our flora (Resedacee and Dipsacee of the above table being
\
List of the principal Phenogamous Natural Orders represented in the
ora of Northern United States, arranged according to the number of
indigenous species they severally comprise
Species | Species.
Composite, 278 Liliacee, 24
about 4th of the 2091 Phanerogamia. Rubiaceze, 23
yperaceze, about zyth, “ 213 Saxifragacez, 22
Graminee, about qth, * ce bGs Polygonacez, “ 92
Leguminose, about sith,“ 91 Asclepiadacen, == 21
Rosacew, about sisth, “ 71 Melanthacex, 21
Ericacez, L 62 Conifers, 20
Scrophulariacez, 54 Violacee, Hypericace, and
Orchidacee, 51| Smilaces, each 18
Ranunculacez, 49 Primulacee, Borraginacez,
Labiate, 49 and Naidace, each 6
Crucifer, 46 Convolvulacee and Urticacer,
Umbelliferze, + 387 eac 5
Onagracez, 36 Polygalacee, 13
Caryophyllacew, 30 Lobeliaceze, Lentibulaceee, Pole-
Euphorbiacez, 28 moniacez, and Alismacew,each, 12
Caprifoliacez, _ 27 Cornacee, and Hydrophyllaceee,
Juncacer, 26) each, . i
Cupuliferse, 25 Sapindacere, Aquifoliaceee, Che-
Salicaces, ; 24; nopodiacer, and Betulacee,
Gentianacee, 24; each, F 10
Only 46 of our orders have 10 or more indigenous species: 63
orders have from 2 to ies, and 28 orders are represented
each by a single species. The average allows 15:09 species to
Phzenogamous plants. In the present case the first nine families,
having 1026 species, lack nineteen of making half; the sum of
ten families exceeds the moiety by thirty. The result is nearly
the same as that brought out by De Candolle from a similar
schedule, tabulated by him from Beck’s Botany of the Northern
214 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern Siates.
and Middle States, north of Virginia, 1833, although the elements
are - aeueaninaes different and the ten largest orders are not the
same througho
Moreover, our ten predominant rom as not properly cor-
respond with the ten mentioned by D dolle as generally pre-
dominant in the temperate regions of the baat pine ere:
viz. “ of os first rank, Composite, Graminee, Cyperacea, Legu-
n the Crucifere, Umbellifere, auch Ctaasieilice —_
minose ;
then, Pata less decidedly, the Labiate, Rosacea, and Scro
lariacee.+ Nor would they do so if, by dividing the Hricacee
into smaller ones, we were to exclude that fami y from the list
of those (eleven in number) which severally comprise not
than two per cent of our phzenogamous species. ‘I
Sageaepes families accord indeed with De Candolle’s conclu:
sion, only the Cyperacee with us are remarkable for surpassing
the Dramas But the next three in our list are quite differ-
ent, even if we omit Hricacee, being Rosacee, Scrophulariacee, and
Orchidace eo all three of De a secon rank fall be- ©
low firs and one of them ryophy
would “fall still til if it were not str by the Hlecebrti
so — regarded as a distinct family.
easy to see that these differences are owing to the unusual
shies of our ee in Cyperacee (chiefly in Curves), and to our —
.
* The schedule drawn from Beck’s = is ag follows :
265
prema
sae 169
races, 157 i
Homie sace, 97
Amentacee, 94 | =1066 species out of 2125 rin ne
Leguminose, 80 plants. .
iate, 59
Ranunculaces, 50
Scrophulariaceze, 48
Orchidacee, 47 J
The differences are readily to be accounted for. 1. The Ri cee mo of Amentacet
in this list for Hricacee in the other, results from the form order having —
ing fi
r of Carices, in which the Northern United States are absolutely bat rich ; which
increase has resulted
ulted from the remarkable attention and repeated = ration tit
genus has received sinee Saga time, from several hands, and perba 5 also fro
a minuter discrimination of the species than in other families. 3. The order Rosace@
te imes as ma’ duced
ne rs We
proper poten of most of these orders, and swells the number of the Phanoga-
which strangely takes precedence of the Leguminose, is unduly expanded a e
pease nts to 2125, while we count only 2091 truly indigenous — within a0
Foaialt larger and now ag og ee known.
Me: Alph. De Candolle: Geogr. Bot., p. 1
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 215
I must not stop here to compare our flora with that of Europe
as respects the proportions of the predominant families. The
data on our part for such comparison are recorded above. I
ass on to notice some charucteristic features which depend upon
positive differences in the families.
fornia, and Galacinew, of one genus and species,—a genus incerte
sedis, rather than an order.
Our orders peculiar to America are the following :—
Sarraceniaces, Cactaces, ydrophyllacee,
Limnanthacex, Galacinez, Bromeliacese ;
Loasaceze
?
all of which, except Galacinee and perhaps Bromeliacee, are also
represented on the western side of our continent. Besides these
China, and the
Extra-European Orders not peculiar to America.
“xtra-European Orders of the p in Western Pp pe » China,
Flora of the Northern States N. America. or Himalayas,
Magnoliacez. |Magnoliacez.
Anonacee. nona:
Menispermacee. |Menispermacee.
Nelumbiacee. \Nelumbiacez.
Cabombacee. ,
Calycanthacee. Calycanthacese
Melastomacese. - Melastomaceze
Passifloraceze. Passifloraceee.
Hamamelace Hamamelacee.
apotaces. Sapotacee.
signoniace. \Bignoniacee (Martynia) ?/Bignoniacee.
Nyctaginacee. |N yctayinacee. Nyctaginacese?
Phytolaccacee. Phytolaccaceee. Phytolaccacee.
aururacee. Saururacez. Saururacee.
Podostemacee. Podostemacee.
Burmanniacer. * |Burmanniacee.
Hemodoracee.
Commelynacee. \Commelynacez.
Xyridacew. Xyridacez.
ag, i"
> eae
As
216 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Thus it appears, 1, that, of our 19 extra-Kuropean orders not
peculiarly American, only 3 or 4 are represented on the western -
or Pacific side of the United States, while all but one are repre-
sented in the corresponding parts of Eastern Asia ;—indicating a
curious analogy in the vegetation of the eastern sides of the two
great continental masses in the northern hemisphere, which is
also borne out, though not so strikingly, in a comparison of the
nera.
D. That the flora of the Northern United States is remarkably
rich in ordinal types, as compared with Europe, which, (exclu-
sive of the Mediterranean region, furnished with two or three),
has only seven orders that we have not, while we have 26 that
are wholly unknown to the European flora.
3. And it is worth noticing that our additional or character- —
istic orders are all of warm-temperature or sub-tropical general
character (which is the more remarkable when the lower mean
temperature of the year as compared with that of Western Ku-
rope is considered): all of these 26 orders have their principal
development in the tropical regions, excepting six of the smaller
ones; and three of these have tropical or sub-tropical repre-
sentatives, : |
4, But the peculiar and extra-European families do not pre-
dominate, nor overcome the general European aspect of our —
vegetation, on account of the fewness of their species. Of the —
est in our flora (Hydrophyllacee) we count only 11 species; —
and the whole 26 orders give us only 64, or barely three per
cent of our phenogamous species. a
_ Our Pheenogamous genera, 681 in number, average three spe-
cies apiece. Far the largest genus is Carex, with 182 species.
On the other hand one half of our genera are represented by —
single species; and about 92 of these are monotypic, having only
a single known species. Mee
The genera which are strictly confined within the geographical ;
our extra-Huro henogamous genera are enum
their respective families, and their distribution in longitude i8
attempted to be given in the two parallel co -
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 217
Phenogamous Genera of the Flora of the Northern United States not
common to Kurope, with indications of their distribution westward, and
in Kastern Temperate Asia, eS s
E Asia,
Extra-European ¢ Generaj Also occurring In WON. Occurring in E Asi
Orders. of Eastern N. Awer- |America, i. €., in Ore-ji.e, in Japan, China, or
as aS _ica. oe ai and California. Himalayas,
fanunculacee, | Trautvetteria. | Trautvetteria, Trautvetteria.
Zanthorhiza.
ydrastis,
Cimicifuga. Cimicifuga, Cimicifuga,
Magnoliacee. Magnolia, Magnolia,
Liriodendron,
Anonacee, ) Asimina
i enispermacee. |Menispermum,
Cocculus. Cocculus
Calycocarpum.
; Berberidacee. Caulophyllum,
Diphylleia,
: Jeffersonia,
: Podophyllum, Podophyllum.
Nelumbiacee, - umbium. Nelumbi
——- Cabombaceee, rasenia, Brasenia.
) Sarraceniacee, | Sarracenia,
_ -Papaveracee, —_| Stylophorum. Stylophorum
— Fumariacee, Adlumia.
E Dicentra. Dicentra. Dicentra.
; Cruciferce, Todanthus.
| avenworthia. i
Capparidacew. | Polanisia. Polanisia,
Violacewe, Solea.
Cistacee, Hudsonia,
Lechea.
Hypericaceee, Ascyrum,
ea,
lace. | Anychia,
Caryophyl evens Mclingé. Mollugo. Mollugo.
Portulaccacee, | Sesuvium. Sesuvium.
inum, Talinum.
Claytonia. Claytonia,
Malvacee. Callirrhée. -
Napea. :
ida. Sida. Sida.
Kosteletzkya. Kosteletzkya. ; é
Camelliacew, Gordonia. Gordonia.
as ee Stuartia. Stuartia.
imnanthacee, | Floerkea.
Rutacee, Zanthoxylum. Zanthoxylum.
Ptelea,
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII. NO. 65.—SEPT., 1956,
28
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
218
Table continued.
Pca aly Extra P Also occurring in W. —s Por °
hiae Orders. a Eastern N. Amer- smgeny? big Baa aiete —
Vitacee. Ampelopsis, Ampelopsis?
Rhamnacee. hemi Berchemia
‘ Ceanothus, Ceanothus.
‘Sapindacee. Atsculus. ulus. Aesculus.
ag Negundo. Negundo, Negundo.
Leguminose, Crotalaria. Crotalaria.
Dalea. ea.
Petalostemon. _|Petalostemon.
orpha, Amorpha,
Robinia.
Wistaria ista
Tephrosia Tephrosia.
Aischynomene shynomene,
Desmodium Desmodium.
Lespedeza. Lespedeza.
Stylosanthes,
ios.
Rhynchosia Rhynchosia.
alactia
Amphicarpea.
Clitoria. Clitoria.
|Centrosema,
Baptisia.
Cladrastis.
Cassia. Cassia.
Gymnocladus,
Gleditschia. Gleditschia,
Desmanthus, Desmanthus, Desmanthus.
chran
Rosacee, illenia.
Calycanthacee, |Calycanthus. Calycanthus. ‘ie
Melastomacee. exia. P
Lythracee, Ammannia, Ammannia, |Ammannia. a
Neseea. is
Cuphea,
Onagracee, (Enothera. (Enothera,
ura, Gaura.
Jussisea, J ussiza,
Proserpinaca.
Loasacece Mentzelia. Mentzelia,
Cactacee.- . Opuntia. Opuntia,
Cucurbitacee, icyos, Sicyos. Sicyos.
Echinocystis
Melothria.
Crassulacee. Penthorum }Penthorum.
Sazifragacee. tilbe. Astilbe.
wee
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States 219
occurring - N. Occurring in a, i.e,
Ordera. of Eastern N. Amer. America, iv. in Ore-| in J China, or
ica. }_gon and California. i
Boykinia. Boy kinia,
Sullivantia,
euchera, Heuchera,
Mitella. Mitella. Mitella.
Tiarella. Tiarella. are.
Itea.
Hydrangea. Hydrangea.
Philadelphus. —_|Philadelphus. Philadelphus.
Hamamelacee. |Hamamelis, Hamamelis.
Fothergilla
| Liquidambar Liquidambar.
Umbellifere:. Crantzi
Polytenia
Archemora, Archemora.
Tiedemannia.
pi Thaspium.
a.
Discopleura,
Cryptotenia.
Osmorhiza, Osmorhiza. orhiza.
ophus.,
Erigenia.
oe Nyssa. Ge
foliacee. |Symphoricarpus. [Symphoricarpus. ;
_< Dierdilla, sd iervilla( Weigela)
iosteum.
Rubiacea. Spermacoce.
: Diodia.
Cephalanthus, Cephalanthus.
Mitchella.
Oldenlandia, Idenlandia.
ernonia.
Elephantopus.
| Adenocaulon, Adenocaulon.
Sericocarpus, —_|Sericoearpus.
Diplopappus, Diplopappus. Diplopappus.
sltonia.
Brachycheta, .
Bigelovia,
Rudbeckia,
Helianthus.
Coreopsis.
Hymenopappus.
Helenium.
Troximon.
Gaultheria.
ee
Menzi:
Pterospora,
220 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Table continued.
5 ra-European TAlao occurring in W. N.(Occurring in EB. Asia,
Orders. [et Resvtes N, ay xs oie ive: is Glin: se ‘ in Japan China, |
ica. go ifornia. or Himalayas
Chrysopsis. Chrysopsis.
Pluchea. Pluchea.
Baccharis. Baccharis.
Polymnia
Chrysogonum ~
Silphiu
arthenium
a
Eclipta.
Cacalia. <G
Clethra,
Slatistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
ie Sea
221
Table continued.
Orders. = o Raho N. nano “awe? as in Cie! "Ee. indapan, Chie, of
gon or California. Himalayas.
Styracacea. a
Symplocos m
Sapotacea. Bacia. SRG
Primulacea. Dodecatheon. |Dodecatheon.
Bignoniacee. Tecoma (also Tecoma (also
,___ Uatalps.) Catalpa.)
Bignonia,
Orobanchacee. |Epiphegus
Conopholis.
hyllo Aphyllon.
Scrophulariacee. |\Collinsia Collinsia.
elone. elone.
Pentstemon Pentstemon,
Mimulus Mimulus.
Conobea.
Herpestis Herpestis. __ |Herpestis.
Ilysanthes. ike Paane
Hemianthus. 3
Synthyris. Synthyris,
“le nba i a Buchnera.
Seymeria.
Gerardia.
Schwalbea.
erg Gelsemium.
Acanthacea. Dianther:
Diptoracanthus, |Dipteracanthus.
Verbenacea.
Callicarp. Callicarpa.
Phryma,
Labiata. so eo Trichostema.
santhus ;
Junila,
>yenanthemum. |Pycnanthemum.
edeoma, Hedeoma.
Collinsonia,
onarda,
Blephilia.
Lophanth |Lophanthus. |Lophanthus.
Cedronella. “
Synandra.
Physostegia (Physostegia.
Borraginacea. |\Onosmodium
Hydrophyllacee. Hydrophyllum. Hydrophyllum.
Nemophila. Nemophila, _
Ellisia. Ellisia.
Phacelia. haceli
Polemoniacea. [Phos hlox. Phlox.
222 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Table continued.
Orders.
rd nen N. hae
)Extra-European Genera Also occurring in W.N.
America, | i & in Ore-
Occurring in E. Asia,
-< in et China,
Convolvulacee.
Gentianacea.
Apocynacea.
Asclepiadacee. |
Oleacea.
WNyctaginacee.
Phytolaccacea.
Chen }
acee,
Amarantacee.
Lauracee.
Thymeleacea,
a@ganace
Santalacea,
Loranthacee.
Urticacee.
Juglandacee.
Pydaathern
Stylisma.
Dichondra.
Sabbatia.
Frasera.
stam ad
Oxybaphus.
Tetranthera,
Comandra.
Phoradendron.
Acalypha,
Croton.
Halenia.
Amsonia.
Oxybaphus.
Benzoin.
'Tetranthera.
Saururus,
Acalypha.
Stillingia.
Croton.
Beehmeria.
iPhyllanthus.
|Pachysandra.
=
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Orders,
Table continued.
Extra-European Ge
s. Eastern N. pang
Also oc: ng W,
gon and California.
Myricacee. |
Conifera,
Aracee,
Wek ydrocharidacea.
een niacece
Orchid
Amaryllidacee.
Hemodoracee.
Bromeliacee.
Lridacecee.
Smiliacee.
Liliacee,
Melanthacee.
N.
pags i es in Ores
Occurring in E. Asia,
in jores, China,
pb alaya
Saapeonia
Taxodium.
Echiiodorus,
Pancratium.
Agave.
Hypoxys.
Lachnanthes.
Lophiola.
Thuja.
Symplocarpus.
Aletris,
Tillandsia.
Sisyrinchium,
Trillium.
eola.
Clintonia,
Yucca.
Uvularia,
Prosartes,
eee
Sisyrinchium,
Trillium,
Clintonia.
Yucca,
'Prosartes,
_ |Xerophyllum.
Thuja.
|Ariszema,
Symplocarpus.
Burmannia.
Trillium.
Clintonia.
Uvularia ?
Zygadenus.
Commelyna.
‘Tradescantia.
Xyris.
224 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
Table continued.
Extra-Eu:op gin W.N.)Occurring in E. Asia,
Orders. of Eastern N. Amer- | America, i.e. in Ore-| i.e. in Japan, China,
ica. gon and California. or Himalayas.
Cyperacea, Kyllingia. Kyllingia.
D
Fuirena,
Scleria. ' |Scleria.
Graminee. Zizania.
Vilfa. Vilfa. Vilfa.
a Sporobolus. Sporobolus,
u jMuhlenbergia. -
Aristida,
Bouteloua, Bonteloua.
Leptochloa. eS Leptochloa.
Arundinaria, |Arundinaria.
Paspalum.
Cenchrus. Cenchrus. Cenchrus.
Sorghum. | Sorghum,
353 101
That is, 87 of our 853 extra-European phenogamous gener
or 24 per cent are common to Western North America, and 101,
or 28 per cent to Eastern temperate Asia. Four per cent more
of our characteristic genera are shared with an antipodal region —
than with the neighboring district of W. N. atiniee ‘And the :
number is likely to increase; for we know far less of the flora of -
Japan and China than of California and Oregon. Drs. Hooker ©
and Thomson’s large Himalayan collections, now in the course
of distribution and publication, will probably add several more
to the list. Twenty-nine of these genera, or 8 per cent, are
regions, b
common to all three of these
Our 194 genera which are neither European, N
nor E, Asiatic in temperate regions, require further discussion t0 —
show which are characteristic of Eastern North America, We —
here barely notice that:
, et oe eee eee Lae BLE
Feo ear a aes
Riis ic See £8 oe
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 25
3 Belong also to Western temperate Asia, viz. Menispermum
Planera, and Zizania; two of these being peculiar to that
district and to ours.
73 Extend southward beyond the limits of the United States
apd into tropical regions, or recur in the southern hemis-
ere.
120 Ke characteristic Eastern United States genera.
As already stated, only three genera are actually restricted to
the geographical area comprised in our ‘Botany of the Northern
United States’. If, however, we allow our area to embrace Can-
ada, which naturally belongs to it, and also include those plants
which extend southward much beyond lat. 36° 30’ only in the
Alleghanies or cool upper country of the Southern States, we
may enumerate 37 genera peculiar to this flora; viz.—
Zanthorhiza. Echinocystis. Pyxidanthera.
Hydrastis. Sullivantia. Direa.
Caulophyllum. Zizia. Hamiltonia. |
Diphylleia, Erigenia. Comptonia.
Jetfersonia. — - Brachycheeta. Arethusa.
Adlumia, Chiogenes. Tipularia.
Solea. Oxydendrum. Aplectrum,
Huds Sia. - Rhodora. Medeola.
Napea, Leiophyllum. Helonias.
Cladrastis, Schweinitzia. Chamelirium
Gymnocladus, Galax. Amphicarpum
- Gillenia. Nemopanthes.
Dalibarda. Hemianthus.
nerally; and no idea can be formed of the real features of a
fo ike ours from such a dissection, and piecemeal presentation,
ach part,
or from an exhibition of what is strict] y peculiar to eac
rather than what is predominant,—at least as respects generic
forms.
Returning now to the species—the real exponents of vegeta-
tion;—these have already been considered as regards their nu-
merical proportions in the several classes and orders of the flora
of the Northern States: it remains to note some facts respecting
their geographical distribution.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856,
29
226 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
As appears from the tabular view commencing on p. 208,
there are common to Europe,
180 Dicotyledonous species out of 1490, or 12 per cent,
141 Monocotyledonous species out of 601, or 234 “
321 Phenogamous Species out of 2091 or 153 “
35 Acrogenous Cypogunis out of 75 or 466 “*
320 Musci and Hepatice out of 502 or 63-7 “
855 Cryptogamous species out of 577 or 61:5 “
in accordance with the general fact that the lower the class the
The Indigenous Phaenogamous Species of the Northern United States, :
tem-
viewed as to their geoyraphical distribution around the northern
perate zone,
Sa eess)28 ) 2 1is1 2 te
e > |eee(ersidd? | 2 | 22)2 [2°78
3 ese ite| 262) 2 | 2 | ee | ze |e
3 25: Grta| eee] = | 22 | 22 | fe |2e
B55 petal mes) a | ze | zt | ge | 224
Class I.
DicoryLeponea&, da
seu Exocena, ee
Ranunculaceex, 49 | 26] 20] 18 1 5] 10).2—
Magnoliacer, 6 6 vag
Anonacez, 1 1 ;
Menispermacee, 3 3
beridacez, 5 5
Nelumbiacee, 1 1
Cabombacee, 1 1 1 1
‘ Hiiad pbs 1 i
ni 2 2 -
Papaveracese, 2 2 ve
Fumariacer, 6 5 1
Cruciferse, 46 | 81 18447 2 1l ;
Capparidacer, 1 1 et
Violacesw, 18 | 15 3 1 1 we
Cistacee, 7 q
Droseracer, 4 2 1 1 2 1
Parnassiacee, 3 2 1 1 1
Hypericaceze, 18 | 18
Asia.
See: sae eae
Statistics of the Flora of the Morthern States.
§
“eli? | 2 af): (a fi
é geelteveizs | s | ge} ee] e2 | Ez
: giz |efb/f2 | 2 | $2] 28) 2 {6
S| eet lSeRel ede | 2 [a8 | ei | 2 |x
=z ofs (Ze bh Soe os ge] 3, | s (s¥
E eee [cces|cse| & | 2s | 28 zi |is4
Z si |e5a/ee| § | 25 | 28 | ge |28
Elatinacez 1 1
a 30} 14] 1 12 13 1
Portulacacex, 4 4
- Malvaceze 9 9
Tiliacez, 2 9
Camelliaces, 2 2
inacee, 2 2
Oxalidacer, 3 1 2 2
Geraniacee, 3 1 1 1
Balsaminacee, 2 2 os
Limnanthacee, 1 1
Rutacez, 3 3
Anacardiacee, 6 5 1
Vitacer, 7 7
hamnacee, 6 6
Celastracez. 3 2 1
Sapindacew, 10 | 10
Polygalacez, 13 | 18
Leguminose, 91} 84 7 4
®, Wie aot 98 47) "3 3
Jalycanthacez, 3 3
Melastomacee, 3 3
Lythraceze 7 5 1 1 1
Onagracee, 36 | 26; 10; 10
I cee 1 1 7
Cactacez, ] 1
Grossulacex, vi 5 2 1
Passifloraceze, 2 2
Cucurbitacez, 3
Crassulacez, 5
Saxifragaces, 22 | 15 4 + 2 2
Hamamelacer, 3 3
Umbellifers, 87 | 26 9 4 3 2
Arali ; 6 in : 1 1 1
Cornacee, 11
Caprifuliaces, 27; 19 7 3 1 3
Rubiacex, ee} tis} *et 8re 1 4
Valerianacez, 7 6 1
Composite, 273 | 233 | 29] 11 2 9
Lobeliacer, 12 ll : ; 3 :
Campanul 3
tom (| as] ‘os | “| Mel 9d it 0
228 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. <
Cuiass I—continued.
SS, leefelt2 | 4.12812 3 | Se
2 gic leseeies. | 3 | 24 | 22 |= [89
3 eeebiee|eer| 2 | | ea |e |e
3 ge. eted|/est| 2 | 32 | 22 | Ze |3%e
s se5 ise) see] 8 | zs | 22 | #® | 22s
sinew, 1 1
A quifoliaceze, 10} 10
Styracacez, 5 5
“benacese, 1 1
Sapotacez, 2 2
Plantaginaces, 6 4 4 1 1
lumbaginacez, 1 1 1 1
Primulaces, 16 8 8 6 6
Lentibulaces, 12 8 2 4 4
Bignoniacese, 2 2
Orobanchacee, 5 2
Scrophulariacez, 54} 38 | 15] 10 1 10
Acanthacez, 3 3 '
Verb 7 5 1 1 1 1
Labiate, 49 42 7 4 4 af
Borraginacee, 16] 12 4 3 3
H ydrophy!laceze, 11 2
Polemoniacex, 12}; 11 1 1 1
Convol vulacez, 15 | 14 1 1 1 oa
Solanacez, 4 4 wid
Gentianacee, 24 | 22 2 2 2 od fae
Apocynacer, + 3 1 A
Asclepiadacez, if 21 -
( ®, 9 9 es
Aristolochiaceee, 6 6 ite
yetaginaces:, 1 1 a
Phytolaccacte, 1 1 Sn
enopodiaceee, 10 4 5 5 1 6 t=
Amarantacee, 5 5 Sa
Polygonacee, 22] 14 7 6 1 6 ny
Lauraceze 5 5 ee
Thymeleacem, 1 1 Ts
'eeagnacese, 1 1 ey
Santalacee, 3 2 1 A
Loranthacer, 1 1 ae
Saururacc ze, 1 1 ns |
: Ceratophyllaceze, 1 ti" 1
Callitrichacese 3 3 3 3 |
I odostemaceee, 1 1 &
Euphorbiacee, 28 | 25 3 a
Einpetracee, 2 1 1 1 1 a
Urticaces, 14 et 8 | 1 Ll A |
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
g
Inhabiting Europe
but not fa Eastern
Asia,
: sei lsd? | 2 [22/2 [a
a c = wt So es sg P=
6 a22 378:/52 | 2 | 22 | #2 | 2
rl ees es] S=_ | 2 | SF | Be Hs
eB. ZED jesce| B25 = Ee 52 Es
| z Zee @ee8/25.1 2 | 2s | Bs | Se
| Bas germ SSS) & 68] 58 a
| latanaceze, 1 1 pay
uglandacee, 9 9
Cupulifere, 5 | 23 1 1 1 1
ricacese, 3 2 1 1 1
Betulacez, 10 6 2 4 2 4
Salicaceee, 24 18 6 4 1 3
oniferee, 20} 18 7 2 2
Class IT.
MoyocorrLzpon &,
‘ seu EnDoGEN &,
Arace: 7 5 2 2 2
Typhacez, 7 1 3 5 6
Lemnacee, 5 it 4 4
Naiadacee, 16 4 + 9 5 12
Alismaceze 12 154 4 a 4 4
Hydrocharidacee, 3 1 1 1 2
Burmanniac 1 1
dacem, Siete 181 81 68) 4d
Amaryllidacee, 4 4
odoracese, em» 4
Bromeliacese, 1 1
Tridacese 6 5 1
Dioseor ; 1 1
Smilacez, 18 de: Ae 1
Liliaceas, 24 14 7 5 1 1
Melanthacez, 21 15 6 1 1
Juncacee, 26 6| 16] 14 4 14
Pontederiacee, 4 4
Commelynacer, 6 6
Xyridacee, 4 4
Eriocaulon 5 4 1
Cyperacee, 218 | 155 37 37 3 2 48
i 162 | 114 44 33 1 4 32
pee) Motoco: 601 | 408 | 143 | 124] 19| 8 | 141
: tyledonee,
Dicotyledonee, 1490 |1168 | 278 | 184 26 17 | 180
Phrenogamia, 2091 |1576 | 416 | 308! 45 | 25 | 321
230 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States.
The data are not at hand for extending this table through the
higher ee togamia, ey for the highest class, and that im
The four orders of Vascular or Acrogenous Oryptosie
pa 5 speek the fllowing Sau: the columns being homologous
with those of the last table.
Equisetaceee, 10 2 8 8 8
|Filices, 49 | 26118123} 81 3 | 20
Lycopodiacee, | 12 | 4] 6| 7{] 1] 2] 6] 1
Hydropterides, | 4| 2] 1] 1] 1 1
75 | 34 | 28 ee 10 5 | 35 1
ka all round the world, they increase somewhat unduly the
umbers of our species common to Europe and to Asia; but
‘hey are not sufficiently numerous with us to require to be for-
mally eliminated. The following are all the Phsenogamous spe-
cies which, within our limits, are found only in our small alpine
region, namely, on the summits of the White Mountains of New
Hampshire, of Mount Katahdin, Maine, and the highest peaks
of the Green Mountains, Vermont, and the Adirondack Mountains
Hie nes
in Northern New Yo
Cardamine bellidifolia. Oxyria reniformis.
Vio tris, Betula nana.
Silene acaulis. Salix phylicifolia.
Sibbaldia proc Salix Uva-Ursi.
Dryas integrifolia, (fide Pursh). Salix repens.
Potentilla frigida, ix herbacea.
Epilobium — var. majus. Luzula arcuata,
Saxifraga rivularis. Luzula spicata.
Gnaphalium pag Juncus trifidus
Nabalus Boottii Carex capitata.
Nabalus nanu Carex atrata
Vaccinium czspitosum. Phleum alpinum.
Arctostaphylos alpina, eee ue Pickeringii.
Phyllodoce taxifolia. Poa
Rhododendron Lapponicum. ine prema ore
Veronica alpina. Hierochloa alpina,
Diapensia Lapponica,
Of these 83 species, two (Nabalus Boottii and Calama
Pickeringit) are peculiar to our own alpine region, so far as is now a
; an
two (Nabalus nanus and Vaccinium cespitosum) are peculiarly
North American. All the rest are European, and nf ee two or
three exceptions also Asiatic. No one sof our vascular Crypto
gamous species is = alpine, Lycopodium Selago comes the
nearest to being so
=
ERY Sat SP eee Bie apse eS he Pool, oe ne Ren Sie SE MIS aN
Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 281
The following are with us subalpine species; they occur in
our alpine region (to which most of them properly belong), but
also out of it, at least in one or two places.
Alsine Greenlandica. trum nigrum.
Geum radiatum. Platanthera obtusata.
Arnica mollis, Scirpus ceespitosus.
Vaccinium uliginosum. Carex scirpoidea.
Euphrasia officinalis. Carex capillaris,
Polygonum viviparum. Trisetum subspicatum.
All of these except Gewm radiatum, Arnica mollis, and Carex
seirpoidea, are also European. The last grows in Greenland.
The following European species have not been detected in any
properly alpine habitat with us (where they might be expected
to occur), but elsewhere, three of them (Saaifraya aizoides and
Carex gynocrates) in stations not even subalpine:
Saxifraga oppositifolia. Artemisia borealis,
Saxifraga aizoides. Juncus Stygius.
Saxifraga Aizoon. Carex gynocrates.
Two Ferns might be added to the subalpine list, viz :— Wood-
sia glabella and Aspidium Sragrans.
e Phzenogamous species whose range far as is now
Botany of the Northern United States’ are the following
7 { > ‘ so
_ known, falls wholly within the limits of the ‘Manual of the
DicoryLeponovs, MonocorTyLeDonows.
Dentaria maxima. Lemna perpusilla,
Vesicaria Shortii. Potamogeton Robbinsii. _
Napzea dioica. - uckermani.
Sida Napa. Trillium nivale. 5
Psoralea stipulata. eratrum ll. .
Astragalus Robbinsii ? Helonias bullata. — &
igi polycarpa. Narthecium Americanum
Tillzea simplex. Juncus Greenii.
Sullivantia Ohionis. Cyperus Grayii.
Galium concinnum. Eleocharis rostellata.
Fedia F compressa,
2.7 \ygehitiean, «Robbins
“ patellaria, Psilocarya scirpoides,
Eupatorium pubescens. Rhynchospora capillacea,
“ jnosum. Carex exilis. H
Solidago Ohioénsis. “ — Sartwellii
= oughtonii “ —_ sychnocephala.
& e ta. ve Craw
“ Muhlenbergii “ tormosa.
“ —— linoides. “ Careyana.
eo ear « — retrocurva.
abe. “« Sullivantii.
232 On the Museum of Practicai Geology of Great Britain.
DicoryLeponovs. MonocoTyLeDonovs.
Rudbeckia speciosa. Carex mirata.
Coreopsis bidentoides. “ Grayii.
Cirsium pumilum. Sporobolus compressus.
Nabalus Boottii. 4: serotinus.
Gaylussacia brachycera. Calamagrostis confinis.
Utricularia clandestina. . Pickeringii.
= resupinata, — brevipilis,
Hemianthus micranthemoides. Dupontia Cooleyi.
Pycnanthemum clinopodioides. Glyceria acutiflora.
. i. oa alsodes.
Asclepias Sullivantii. “ debilis.
a Meadii
Meadii. Amphicarpum Purshii.
34 species = 71.
(Zo be continued.)
Arr. XVII.—Letter on the Museum of Practical Geology of Great
Britain; by Sir Roperick I. Murcuison.*
TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD STANLEY OF ALDERLY, &c. d&ec.
Havine heard that Her Majesty’s Government proposes to re-
move the Department of Science and Art, at present under the
control of the Board of Trade, to the office of the Minister of
the Crown-who may be élinectad with the education of the people,
IT beg to be permitted to place on record a few observations on
the effect which such a change may produce upon the establish-
ment in Jermyn-Street, as consisting of the Geological Survey
of the United Kingdom and its affiliated School of Mines and
illustrative Museum.
exposition of the views entertained by my associates and myself.
will first recall to your Lordship’s notice, briefly, the origin
of this establishment ‘and the objects which it was destined to
__™* From a “Copy of Correspondence between the Director-General of the Geolog-
ical Survey and the President of the Board of Trade and the Council of Education,
relative to annexing a Museum of Practical Geology to the Department of Arts and
On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 288
wealth, have analogous institutions, attention will be drawn to
the following points. S
irst. What real benefits will be derived from our estab-
lishment, if it be duly encouraged as a higher School of Mines?
Second. What may result, if it be rendered subordinate to
interest of man. Acting on this principle, each government of
the Great American Republic has its state geologist, Sepia .
10018
ool for sound instruction, not only in geology, mining, and
mineralogy, but also-in the essentially connected sciences of nat-
934 On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain.
inspectors of coal mines, each receiving a salary of 400/. per
annum, should be appointed, who had not undergone the prelim-
inary studies which our institution affords. If such and other
the part of Her Majesty’s government, that no one of the twelve
arian t
which we teach.
A really encouraging move, one which has produced the best
effects upon our students, has indeed been made in this direction
through the enlightened views of His Royal Highness Prince
Albert, who, acting for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales,
as Duke of Cornwall, presented to our establishment two schol-
arships of the annual value o . each.
ven in our present condition, nearly 100 officers
7
of Her
Majesty’s or the Honorable East India Company’s services haye
or let it be supposed that, in any case where a young man is
really desirous to gain knowledge, he is not adequately taught;
inasmuch as eneey one of our professors acts both as teacher and
examiner, ané takes upon himself the tutorial responsibility of
ascertaining that he a truly imbued his pupil with sound
nowledge. 2
A striking proof of the interest attached to the useful instruc:
cially to call attention to a volume about to be issued by our —
a
e
%,
On the Museum of Practical Geology of Great Britain. 235
may arise, if our body should, by a change of relations, be gov-
he the diffusion of scientific knowledge among its masses.
ey may, with the most sincere and earnest intention, not only
fail to advance, but even exercise a retarding influence on suc
iffusion, and may object to a course of study w ich, as now
pursued, is irrespective of religious teaching. Experience has
shown in how sickly a manner practical science is allowed to
-Taise its head under the direction of those persons whose. pur-
Suits are alien to it; whilst in every land, where it has had due
Support, the greatest benefits have resulted. —
laced as the geological survey and its affiliated branches now
are, in subordination to the Board of Trade, they are continually
aiding in the development of an amount of mineral wealth far
exceeding that of any other country, and in this wholesome and
Important action, the movements of our body are not only un-
fettered, but are likely to receive all that encouragement which
Seems alone to be wanted to enable this establishment to be emi-
nently useful in instructing that class of persons who will mate-
ate augment the productive industry and trade of Great
itain,
* See Mr. J. Kenyon Blackwell’s Paper on the Present position of the Iron Tndus-
uy of Great Britain, with reference to that of other Countries, read at the Society
Arts, Wednesday 9, January 1856, p. 121 of the Journal.
236 J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradvum.
I have thus taken the liberty of offering to your Lordship, as
the Member of Her Majesty’s Government under whom I serve,
my view upon a subject of which I have long thought; and
have only now to request that, in giving it your best attention,
you will submit this letter to Her Majesty’s Government, an
particularly to the consideration of the Minister who may be des-
tined to be charged with the education of the country.
Geological Survey Office, Jermyn Street, Jan. 25, 1856.
Art. XVIIL—Remarks on the Genus Tetradium, with Notices of the
Species found in Middle Tennessee ; by Prof. J. M. SAFFORD,
A. M., Geologist of the State of Tennessee.
THE genus Tetradium, has been characterized by Prof. Dana
in his great work on Zoophytes.* His description and remarks
are as follows:
“ Coralla massive, consisting of 4-sided tubes, and cells with
very thin septa or parietes; cells stellate with 4 narrow laminz.”
“This genus is near Receptaculites, but differs in having ve
thin parietes and four distinct rays within the cells, one to eac
side. The specimen answering to the description, is a fossil of
uncertain locality in the collections of Yale College, New Haven.
The cells are about half a line in breadth. The name, from the
Greek, t#79«s, four, alludes to the quadrate structure.” -
ar as we know, no further notice has been taken of this
enus. To us it is of great interest from the fact that individu-
als, belonging apparently to several species, are not very abund-
ant in the limestones of the Silurian, or as we shall hereafter term
it, the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee.
to nearly a line in breadth; they are very long, and are most
frequently united throughout laterally, forming massive coralla
opora.
he isolated tubes are nearly quadrangular, the edges —
more or lessrounded. A slight linear depression down the mia
* United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1939, 1840, 1841,
1842, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. Vol. 8th, page 701.
4
| stellata Hall,
ees,
ne
~
J. M. Safford on the Genus Tetradium. 237
dle of each side externally, opposite the lamelle. is
Figure 1 will serve to give an’ idea of the trans- 98;
verse, or horizontal section of one of these tubes.
In the massive specimens the horizontal sections 0? Teukaren®
of the tubes are square, or nearly so. In all of ™ oridea Vesa iares
the species the walls are more or less rugose. linear.
The increase appears to be by the division of the tubes, the
latter splitting sometimes into two cell-tubes, not unfrequently
perhaps into four; opposite laminz unite and form the ne
walls of the young celfs, each of which is in the mean time sup-
plied with its four rays. ;
Among the numerous specimens of this genus, which we have
seen, we have met with but one which shows clearly the pres-
ence of transverse septa. This is a fragmentary specimen of the
first species described below. In it the septa are distant about
twice the breadth of a tube; but few however are seen, and these
are confined to one end of the mass.
arately growing
of i
Transverse “ey
I b -
a line. ‘Transverse septa usually absent. of afew tubes of 7
y en as the type of the
genus, occurs abundantly throughout the upper half of the Lower
mass of woody fibre, and hence the name of the seer £3
2. T. columnare Hall; Syn. Chetetes columnaris Hall. al.
of N. Y., vol. i, p. 68, Pl. x1, Figs. 4, 4a—Mr. Hall's species,
238 iM. Safford on the Genus Tetradium.
we think referable to this genus. It differs from T. fibratum in
the following particulars: the tubes are not as uniformly four-
sided, nor are they arranged with equal regularity ; the walls are
more strongly rugose; the lamellze appear to have been more
delicate, and are generally not to be seen; traces of them how-
ever can, in most instances, be found upon close examination.
The four-sided character of the tubes is sufficiently well marked
to justify this reference, in connection with the fact that traces of
the lamelle can often be detected.
This.species is associated with the last,and occurs, in addition,
lower in the series, with Columnaria ulveolata Hall. It is a
common fossil in our Central Basin.
3. T. apertum Safford—Tubes isolated or fasciculated, or else
united in linear series which often intersect, forming irregular
reticulations ; breadth of tubes about half a line; lamellz as in
T. fibratum.
This species includes certain open, loosely constructed corals
which belong to this genus. Two varieties may be designated.
These appear to run into each other in some specimens, thoug
it may be found necessary hereafter to separate them.
a) Masses composed of separate tubes occasionally united by
their sides. These forms often resemble Syringopora.
) Masses composed of tubes arranged in linear series, the lat-
ter intersecting and forming masses like those of Hulysites caten-
wlatus Linn.
Should it be found necessary to separate these varieties, the
first ey be designated 7. laxum and the second 7. apertum.
We have observed no characters, with the exception of the
=“ mode of growth which separate this species from 7. fibra-
Ne |
The first variety is abundant in the middle part of the Lower
Silurian series of Middle Tennessee. The second is found in the
upper half as well as near the base. We have observed the
same species in Kentucky. «it
4. T. minus Safford—We include in this species massive speci
mens, (generally small,) the tubes of which are only from 4th to
4d of a line in breadth. The tubes in some specimens are quite
regular, in others, though generally four-sided, are more or less
irregular and have the aspect on the upper surface of Cheetetes.
ee as in T. fibratum. af
e have occasionally seen this species in the upper division:
the Lower Silurian can in Middle Reset well as 2
Kentucky.
=
E.. Hitchcock, Jr., on a New Fossil Sheil. 239
nl
Art. XIX.—A new Fossil Shell in the Connecticut River Sand-
stone ; by EH. Hircxcock, Jr.
T HAVE lately found in the coarse sandstone of Mount Tom,
(Easthampton, Mass.,) a shell of a mollusk, the first I believe
that has been discovered in the sandstone of the Connecticut
Valley. It is preserved and not petrified, and a considerable
part of it has disappeared. Enough remains however to enable
us to refer it to a family if not to a genus of shells. It is ‘repre-
sented in the annexed diagram of the natural size as it lies in
}
—
—
———
ppg
the rock. The upper part is gone, leaving an oval opening about
an inch and three quarters in one diameter and an inch and one
quarter in the other. It extends downwards, tapering somewhat
rapidly nearly an inch and a half, and is left without a bottom,
he lower opening being about an inch wide. The walls are
Very thick, in some places nearly half an inch, and made up of
Several concentric layers.
Tom the resemblance of this shell to a model of the lower
valve of the Sphzerulites calceoloides in the Cabinet of Amherst
College, it seems probable that it may be referred to that family
of Brachiopods denominated Rudistx b
240 2=©=———s«. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii.
as described in vol. xx, p. 22 of this Journal. The shell is
found in the same coarse grit as the Clathropteris, immediately
beneath the trap (see section in the paper just referre :
y referring to Bronn’s Letheea Geognostica, I find that the
Rudiste with the exception of the genera—Orbicula and Cra-
nia, are confined almost wholly to the Chalk Formation, and
the shell from Mount Tom certainly comes nearer to the
creeping, like fiery serpents, in a thousand gory looking rills,
over the smouldering masses of lava, long ionae ited “These
* From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, March 7, 1856.
P
T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. 241°
lateral outlets, or burst again to the surface by raising the super-
incumbent crust into ten thousand tumuli, cracking it in every
crags. ‘The process is somewhat like that of a superabundant
channels under vast fieids of ice; allowing, of course, for the
where the angle of slope was small, say 1°. Here its progress
ecame slow, it spread more widely, and refrigeration was more
tapid, The surface, of course, hardened first. But this refrigera-
and extended higher and higher up the mountain, until at length
all the lava was covered except at occasional vents—as heretofore
movements, as it pushed sullenly along over the rocks, through
the jungle and into the mud, the pools, and water courses. he
Process of breaking up vertically and spreading out afresh upon
the hardened crust, was occasioned by obstructions at the end of
the stream, damming up the liquid, and thus obliging the accu-
ihulating lavas to force new passages and outlets for disgorge-
ment. In this way the stream was widened by lateral out-
gushings, divided into several channels, swayed to the right and
* .
» {nd raised to great heights by pushing up from below, an
.
“ping mass after mass upon what had Leen its upper stra-
liantly at the end, it would suddenly harden and cool, “and for
eral days remain inactive. At length, however, immense
n capped—domes
> Week—hilla and ridges of scoria move anil clink—immense slubs
Of lava are raised vertically or tilted in every direction, while a
SECOND SERIES, Vou. XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856.
31
«
.
242 T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii.
five square miles. More than once have I been on such a field,
and heard, and seen and felt more than is here or can be de-
scribed. And yet the action of the lava is so slow—in the con-
ditions described—that there is no fear, and little danger to one
ell acquainted with such phenomena. While the timid novi-
tiate would flee for miles before such a scene, without looking
back, and without consciousness of breathing, the experienced
explorer will walk deliberately among the fiery pools, and rills,
pry off the caps of bursting tumuli, and dip up spoils from the
incandescent rocks.
When the lava becomes obstructed so that it ceases, for a time,
to flow from the end of the stream, then the process which has
been described takes place at some point above, and the molten
mass coming up at many points, and accumulating on the sur-
face, moves down in a superincumbent stream or streams, COv-
ering up the hardened masses below, deepening the lava, and at
length reaching the terminus of the former flow, pushes on into
the standing forests, and continues its progress towards Hilo
perhaps a mile or so, when this hardens and stops, and at longs
the itp is repeated. Here you see the reason why Hilo
not long since been buried.
Several large tributaries of the Wailuku—the stream which
empties into our bay—are blotted vut, and the water of the Wai-
luku is greatly reduced and rendered for the present unfit
or use.
Scenes of terrible splendor have been witnessed in some of
our river channels, as the molten flood moved resistlessly dow),
displacing the water, leaping the precipices, and lighting up the
anks with immense bonfires of flaming jungle. I have witnesse
two scenes of the kind of inexpressible brilliancy. One on the
night of the 29th of January, and the other on the 12th of Feb-
ruary. During the former night, the molten stream poured con-
tinuously over a precipice of 50 feet, into a deep, dry basin, half
filled with flood-wood. The angle down which this fire-ca
flowed, was about 75°: the lava was divided into two, three,
and sometimes four channels, from one to four yards wide, and
two or three feetdeep. The flow was continuous down the face
of this pom from 2 Pp. M. on the 19th until 10 a. m. on the
80th, when we left, During the night the immense basin under
the fall was filled, the precipice converted into an inclined plane
86
ee
T. Coan on the Eruption at Hawaii. 243
of about 4°, and the burning stream was urging its way along
low. é:
the rocky channel belo
But the scene on the night of the 12th of February, was, in
some respects, more gorgeous still, as it combined the element of
water with that of fire. A stream of lava from 20 to 40 yards
wide had followed the rocky and precipitous bed of a river, un-
sunset. It was intensely active, and about’ to pour over a pre-
cipice of 89 feet (by measurement,) into a basin of deep water,
large enough to float a ship. Before dark, the lava began to fall
into the water, first in great broken masses, like clots of blood ;
of motion. The water boiled and raged with fearful vehemence,
taising its domes and cones of ebullition ten feet high, and re-
sa the red masses of fusion like a sea of fire mingled with
The evaporation was rapid and sublime. From the whole sur-
face of the basin, a vast irregular, column of vapor rose and
rolled upward in fleecy wreaths, and hung in a gilded and glo-
Tlous canopy over the dark forest and over the fiery abyss. Al
hight long the scene was ever changing and yet unchanged.
+he convolutions and gyrations were constant and inimitable.
Sometimes the fleecy pular would roll up vertically, until it
seemed to form an entablature for the great dome of heaven.
Again, it would career off upon the winds, like a glorious
‘axy, or break up in delicate tumuli to adorn the midnight
sky. We encamped on the bank of the river, about fifty feet
below the fiery cataract, and exactly opposite the basin of water
mto which the lava was flowing, 20 feet only from its rim.
| face of this precipice was an angle of about 80°, and the
lava flowed down it briskly and continuously, in streams from
‘one to four feet deep, during the night. Before morning this
whole body of water, some 20 feet deep, was converted into
steam, and the precipice became a gently inclined plane. Ina
w hours more the action ceased at this point and it has not
ween again renewed,
_1 have seen continuous lava streams flow rapidly down: the
Sides of the mountain from 10 to probably 50 feet deep.
flows at an depth, or any angle, and at any rate of progress
20 feet an Soe to 40 miles. :
_, March 17.—The lava has made no progress towards us since
the date of this letter.
244 E. Nickles on Amorphous Phosphorus.
Arr. XXI—On the urification of Amorphous Phosphorus ; by
p
M. Ernest NICKL
phorus), is obtained by heating common phosphorus for some
C., in an atmosphere
of the sulphuret so that the ordinary phosphorus which ra 8
| not
red phosphorus, I have sought, by a study of the distinctive
qualities of the two kinds of phosphorus to arrive at a safer and
tion of chlorid of calcium of 88 to 40 B., answers well the pul
pose,—the lighter ordinary phosphorus floats on the surface while
the heavier red phosphorus remains below; and the former is
readily taken up by a little sulphuret of carbon which dissolves
it, 80 that the operation can be performed in a closed vessel.
ies
E. Nickles on Amorphous Phosphorus. | 245
The following are the details of the process, A little sulphu-
ret of carbon is introduced into the retort in which the trans-
formation has been effected. If the material, which usually
adheres strongly, does not detach itself, the bottom of the retort
‘is put into warm water. The disaggregation of the material
takes place immediately, and is attended with a slight noise. As
soon as the phosphorus is detached, the saline solution is added ;
the vessel is then closed and shaken, and at the end of ten
minutes the separation of the two is accomplished. If the
Three washings of this kind, will remove every trace of the
ordinary phosphorus, however large the proportion. (ca
_ After separating the two liquids by decantation, it is only
Recessary to turn upon a piece of linen cloth, the saline solution
containing the red phosphorus. The purity of the product is so
perfect, that it is useless to boil it with a solution o caustic pot-
ash, the common method. The whole is com leted in half an
hour ; and what is also important, it is attended with no danger,
for the operation by being carried on in a close vessel, does not
allow of the vaporization of the sulphuret of carbon and a
oe, Sk of the inflammable phosphorus. __ :
cent observations have shown that the inhalation of the
Vapor of sulphuret of carbon is not without injury to the health;
orkmen employed in the caoutchouc manufacture have suffer
x
Oe eenial da
double advantage from this point of view, it diminishing the
quantity of sulphuret of carbon used and the chances of its
inhalation.
Chemists will see the value of the mode of separating solid
‘substances of different specific gravities, mentioned above—a
method not requiring heat nor a direct solvent, and being both
fasy and expeditious.
246 ' Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Art XXIL—Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy; by the
Author.* —
Since the last Supplement was issued, but few new species
have been proposed and several of these are of doubtful stand-
edges, although so delicate as to require a glass to distinguish
them. Having received specimens from Professor Scacchi, the
American mineralogy, there has been the publication of
some geological reports containing information on useful mine
rals and ores, and a few articles in the Journals. The only new _
minerals have been announced ina mining report, and in this
volume (p. 96), by Prof. C. U. Shepard.
It is a
n
brought out, ppeually in this country, without sufficient inves-
tigation and ful ipti i
gions of error; and often much and long labor is required be-
fore the science recovers from these backward steps.
1, List of New Works,
Dr. Cart Friepricn Naumann (Liepzig): Elemente der theoretischen Krystallo-
graphie, 384 pp., 8vo, with 86 wood-cuts. Liepzig—This volume is oun &
supplement to the former one (Anfangsgrunde der. Krystallographie) published in
1854. In that, the elements of the science are explained and the besa for caleu-
* For Supplements I and II, see this Journal, xix, 353 (May, 1855), and xxi, 198
: e Mineralogy.
(March, 1856). The paging inserted beyond, refers to the
.
.
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 247
lations are given. This new work gives the mathematical demonstrations, com:
Dog, « with the principles of analytical geometry, tok two were more conven-
iently incorporated in one work, in Naumann’s 2nd edition of his Crystallography
published in 1830. Naumann is the best author o on the ielante of Crystallography.
ra gna der Mineralogie, 4th ed. 480 pp. 8vo. With 398 wood-cuts,
—
- Durrenoy: Traité de Minéralogie, 2me edit. a ie tee an
Tome 2 et Tome 5, ian partie, et Atlas de 80 planches, 8yo,
Cnevatier Fr. von Haver & Fr. Farrerce: Cou up dc ere sur
es de la Mon atch Autrichienne, rédigé par order de vhnstitae Impérial et Royal
2 le Golo, avec une introduction par uM. Haidinger.—252 pp. large 8vo, Vieuna,
G. H. Voter: On Leuchtenbergite and its associates, ip ate Garnet,
Perofskite, Magnetite Tale-apatite, de. Pogg. xevi. 414 and 559, Contuins obser-
vations on the analyses by — authors, with some ‘lotions that require more
investigation to give them curr. ency.
‘Taeovor Ksrrutr (Adjunct an der Univ. hseeteits | Das Sehiaw ae ona
en, chemisch-geognostisch untersucht. Auf V eranstaltung des Academ
a 8 herausgegeben von A. Strecker, 68 A: mall 4to. spas a geol ia ee
Is work treats of the Silurian pele ¢ Christiania, and e y from a chem-
ieal point of view Ww, giving many analyses, (of granites, por: RY syenites, traps, etc.)
and the beari ing of the subject on the origin of the rocks. r
Dr. Gustay Grore Winktrr: Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs. 136 pp.
8¥0. Miinchen : 1856. J. Palm.—A clear and systematic review of the subject of
pseudomorphism. The author recognizes two kinds of pseudomorphism : that due
to woven n of the orginal material, and ie due to substit tution of om mineral
Species <a in dalebdn te pho ng the more solubl objet to i te
the instances of a change of a dimorphous substa tarsi state to the other
ve as that of aragonite to calcite, while ous pst ni te pw ar iain form) as psen-
morphs. He also takes no notice of t se pseudomorphs which arise from one
mineral covering or encasing another and eagle in reverse its exterior form,
bet mens a cavity once occupied by a crystal. Each of these kinds merits at ie
; i 1 j
a or covering over fluor is a common an a a bed form is een rn’
ral y
Several other pseudomorphs supposed to
through solution, ma ay ha hn been rs this ating gl
nc of m8 piece pnt a cavity which another infiltrating Bohiea may fil, taking
A, Scaco isa sullo Incendio Vesuviano del mese di i maggio 1855, fatta
per j incariog della R. Accad. delle Sci. dai Socii G. Guarini, L. Palmieri, ed A. Stach
Preceduta dalla relazione ts eh: incendio del 1850, fatta da A. Scacchi. 268 pp.
“to, with 6 plates. Napoli, 1
J. A. Hucanp: Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle: Galerie de Minéralogie - de Géol-
apie, Dass des Collections, Classement et Distribution des Minéraux, Roches,
Terrains, et es, ete. 190 pp. 16 mo. Put: 1855.
GC. Wake, First and Second pee er n the —— Satara of
BF. Shumard. Dr. Litton is chemist to the peony and his. report con
Sie
of limestones, iron ores, etc. (vid. this Jour, xxi, 427),
an M.S. ssance of the State of Tennessee, being
the tem Sea ronal ge organ 8vo. Nashville, Tenn. 1856. Contains
formation o the ore beds or veins of the State, of Iron, Copper, Lead, Zinc.
ae re four iron ore regions; (1) t the ite st through the State (J obn- |
poe Carter, etc. Count eee in front of the Unak oup of mountains ; (2} the Dye-
ane toyion skirting the eastern base of the Oumnbertand and Walden’s ridge from
ginia to we Be elon Sequatchee and Elk valleys; (3) the Cumberland,
associated with t measures, in the northern part of ihe State; (4) the West-
ern, occupying a nip ‘tho t 50 miles wide of the western part of Middle Tennes-
ont
”
out of Kentu
r of the setae op: tag ape In — pe there are Limonite, Hematite
rd, ¢ mn-s :
ennessee.
be known. At several vince the mines promise to be of v meter exists”
sparingly in southeast Tennescee, ‘in Blount Co., a ~ nies east of ‘nivale Spe
pee: of —— Mountain ay onroe, on ~ ay of Citico creek, in the bed
cree
head w Tellico t
bee ‘also in Polk Co. In eth f the gold deposited. aes e U. S. mint amoun
ae } in 1848, $7,161; in Phy $5,180; in 1851, $2, a in 1852, Peso; in err
Silver glance has been fn nd i in two localities, both now doubtful. The spec
reported by Dr. Troost, according to the author, probably came from the Cartel
erous limestone, on or near the Calf-killer creek.
i ee tan “ coal marble, hydraulic limestone, and other products are mentioned
in the v
W. Krroneti (New Jey tap S pemcenlg aces Annual Report of the Geo-
logical Survey of New Jerse vO., on, 1856 —The iron and zine
mines of the State are assert d po much Sone ati detail. At Mt. Hope
nel. Mr. Wurtz sm a mineral which he has not yet examined, but announces as _
probably new (p. 192).
Cc : Report on the Canton Mine, eae. 20 pp. 8vo., 2nd edit,
New Hives. 1836 —Contains an account of the minerals of the mine, yor indi-
cations of three supposed new species called Harrisite, Hitchcockite, and Cherokine.
2. Crystallography, Formation of Minerals, etc.
Furn ‘roduct. Magee mentions (Soc. Sci. Gott. Nov. 1855) that Man-
ganblénde occurs alte he cyano-nitrid of titanium, both in the furnaces of
Gleiwitz, and the Royal Mines of Silesia; and Wohler bh og ee same from the
Ht They had been taken for magnetic iron. They occur in the scoria which forms
in the working of the blast furnaces. The erystals are esl in uistnet octahedrons,
4 millimeters in diameter. The color when fresh, is iron-bla d the lustre
> tgeincd metallic; but becoming pee igo m~ scales on cxporur. It
differs from bas native ime mice g oS — strongly peerey ene by the magnet,
ee also in giving the reactions of iro ell as mangan ae fore the blowpipe.
it fuses with very os difficulty ee a rowed bind seo
ron ores, by E. F. Gio even xevi, 262). The
paper do nel og Poeun orphs of beoiniadiie C cater iron} fte i it earthy |
red iron ore after he ; limonite after 4 kes mage ies ti
ee eee agnetite. They are similar to called in
tite, or octahedral specular iron of Brotha upt. e% “ee ee
Goyiometer for the measurement of angles of
with a plate. W. Haidinger. Pogg. xcv F590, erystals and for optical ee
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 249
3. Descriptions of Species.
Attayrre [Min. p. 208, and Suppl. 1, mJ. — Description tg Frere dhe of Allmit from
At Hel
Norway, by D. Forbes and T. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. x 13) n crys-
tals Wuletinies 4 inches long and 2 to 1 in. thick,“ ith et and mic a he
oa Screen tou and vse» massive specimens have nee, =3 46—2-48,
n fro ing in red orthoclase, gave H.=6, Nair 86—-2°93,
a Sedieh -black color ‘hd gece “gray streak, and afforded on analysis
Bi Se fe xX e: de, Dio dS... Geis Oe
3103 724 371 929 22:98 435 102 639 12:24 alkali and loss 1°75
ate occurs at Criffel in Scotland in small crystals in syenite and feldspathic _
; &.P. Greg, Jr.
Aum [p. 38 eatin in the caves of the Unaka Mts., Eastern Tennessee, es-
sare at Sevier, where masses of a cubic foot may be obt ained; also in the
k slate of Middle Tennessee; in caves along the valleys and gorge ‘ i the
treams in DeKalb, Coffee, Franklin, and other counties.—Safford’s Rep, p. 1
Atunogen [p. 881].—Occurs at Vesuvius with alum, Scacchi, op. cit., By
“A white fibrous alunogen (?) occurs Caeae 2 at Smoky Mountain, sites Co.,
N. Carolina, According to Mr. Faber, there are ‘tons to be blasted at that t locality,
—(Prof. J. C. Booth, in a letter to the aut
LVITE. a He
Naresté in Norway. In dimetric mort like pnt Fracture — B=
d. G i , becomi wen
Lustre greasy; opaque, on the edges a B.B. in the platisuen *nfusible,
color somewhat paler With nae rax ss greenish yellow while hot, colorless
when cold, os salt of phosphorus . sae glass, green, and finally colorless on
oe cooling. With tin no titanium ares In fine powder, not o prpiens by the acids,
: An ‘ae hag of the mineral on a very sina portion and part of it somewhat altered
" Al,Be Fo Ar Ge vy Th?) Ga CuSn H
20:33 1411 966 3:92 O27 22:01 15:13 0-40 trace 932=9724
| rina NDALUSITE [p. 257 and ant 1, onl ae SP wom (1) of the Andalusite of Katha-
cone — Wunsiedel, hs near Meissen, and (3) of Braunsdorf
near Freiberg, by E. E. Sch at has + xev ii, 118):
) Si 1 Fe Oa Mig
$ BY BS Gh 8B Ms Bh ext
‘34 55825 3 22 1 4 -= =311
, . ted 5988 s:33sCOG1SsOIT_ = 9956 G. = 3.07
Oxygen ratio for the silica and ery ne? (1) 2:3 06, (2) git oa (3) 2: 2°86,
ese ae poding nearly to the formula [ Allowing that the protoxyds are com-
2:3] with purt of the silica, Nos. pine vai give anabenaioe ts nearly the ratio
ANotesire —Kokscharov figures a fine crystal of Anglesite
from Mc on i Sr ini (i alee ii, 163). hay ated the occurrence of the
ia ves the angles J: J=103° 434’, O:1=115° 35’.
abe 39 .—Occurs in New Jersey. at Mt. Pleasant Mine,
penile a bo, mse “set the junetion of the Rockaway River Sins the
— Meadow 6 anil s of a mile from the canal. se
“Sora 6 nei in diameter. Aputite is also abundant with the magnetite o
yee —N. J. Geol. Rep. 1856.
Atacowire [p. 448, and Suppl. 11].—Pseudomorphs of the scaly massive
ate of lin lime zh srry a Goran) after Gy oerald, are described b; G. Rive
in Pogs. Ann. xevii, v7 Near WiederstaJt in Mansfeld, a fine gyps
_ SECOND iio, VOL. XXII, NO, 65.--SEPT., 1856,
32
250 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
contains selenite in large plates which are eae aps be this earthy carbonate.
d the change by supposin s holding pees of
transparent; a L D
tables have the pees and Seraph: of aragonite. sage gravity 2.984 a
kin ay. Color
bite me aa bro to gold-yellow ; lustre submetallic, anak B-sided prisms
th . The an i
s ual “wits the micas, near 120°. Laminz but little elastic, Contains Si, Pe,
, Mg, K, Na, Mn, Oa, and about 8 per cent of water with no fluor.
Aracautre (2) [p. 138, and Suppl. 1]—Prof. Scacchi questions the occurrence of
mite at Vesuvius (op. cit, p. 197). The supposed atacamite occurs (1) in
Opaque crystals, bet een reen and bests bluish pre .
crust, _ rough surface and emerald-green color; (4) in a very thin crust, ©
fine e en idaren en color. The first variety attic seems to be t
into the
ond,
Prof. Se: noe concludes from his various trials, that the mineral does not contain
chlorine; that its composition is not constant; that ordinarily on pricey? it in
water, it affords an insoluble salt of a bluish color, which dissolves in nitric acid
affords reactions of sulphuric acid and copper, and may be a basic sulphate of ¢ copper:
Binsrre [Suppl. 11].—This mineral which occurs with pes Asatte bh in the dol-
omite of Binnen, is described by Ch. Heusser, in Pogy. xevii, 120. Cr stallization,
trimetric. Occurring forms prismatic, stated hngitadkeally, the prism J, having
ometimes
O, 1, %, and a macrodome Basal angle of the dome 4%, 48° 52’; of 6 77° 39’; of
$%, 100° 38’; of 2%, 16° 12’. Color pale or dark steel-gray to ; streak-
powder uniforml 3 Seg arker red than that of the dufrenoysite; very par frae-
ture perfect conchoidal.
Boracrre [p. 393, and Suppl. a po ar massive boracite of Stassfurt, which wre
ti true boracite i so ready solubilit i been
amed Stassfurtite by G. Rose (Pogg xevii, 632). e Solution in heated muriatie
acil deposits after : , wins, a ted boracic acid. The masses are not properly
structureless but have a columnar one ition and the system of crystallization
probably is nut monometric. ‘Chemica alpray: ite and, stassfurtite according to
analyses, give a same formula; and if so, the two are an example of dim orp.
H. Rose has n alyses under ip a ‘and other examinations of specimens
clear up the soabie « on the subject
Borovateooatcrre [p, 394]. g Prcatang of this mineral from near Iquique, S. 4»
by Rammelsberg (Pogg. xcvii, 301) :
Ca Na kK H
43:70 13 iL 6 67 0-83 35:67 = 100
$17 p.c. of chlorid of sodium, 0-41 sulphate of soda, and 0°39 of su hate OB
obtained in the analysis being excluded. = gives the formula a Ne Behe
ysis
18H. The pe bro edter 3 in physical characters, which Hayes analy ipaed, 8 Aen
him the composition Oa B?-+-6H. x
vant E, D. Forbes and T. Dahll (N yt. Mag. f. Nat. = —In indistinct, probs
stals, imbedded in orthociase, and found near Helle, Narestd, Alvé
and ake, orway. Fracture pone H=6—65. @. = 13—5'36.
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 251
brown ; streak yellowish brown. Lustre semi-metallic. Thin splinters translucent,
Decrepitates strongly — Geigy water. B.B, in the platinum forceps infusible, but
ellow: with bo glass which is brownish yellow while hot, but my
and finally ses Ad oe on eoalialy In salt of phosphorus, a skeleton of si
Breunvertre [p. 443].—The Tautoclin of Rt te occurs (N. Jahrb. f. Min.
etc., 1855, 842) in pore heal R5, or R8.4R3 Se after calcite,
urs in the ne mine, near Freiberg ; genes pripecsese ase Schnee-
berg, Przibram in Bohemia, de, Ettling obtained for the tautoclin o f Beschert-
ar Freiberg :
C4575 Gaov48 Mg1685 e925 Mn1-29 = 9762
Catorre [p. 435, S08 and Suppl. 1, 1],—A variety of curved columnar calcite
aes Freiberg in Sax ony, according to gay Bi (Fogg. xevii, 811) has each column
made up of a series of tabular crystals R [of the form in fig. 574 ©, p. 435
of Min. only very short] united in fe Pie of the vertical axis. e diameter is
nostly 2 or 8 mi ayy Rice eculiar forms of grouping and poe of struc-
ure are described in the ig
CARNALLITE, H. Rose. cee 9 by B H. Rose (Pogg. xeviii, 161). Occurs
mixed with the stone salt of Stassfurt inc se granular masses, having a shining
a ome 5 rsh and parm sc showings a plane surface after the action of
water over the surface, as if in dicating ohare or a - without one ts
tinet sal of iti in a fresh separ Dissolves easily in water. Composition
cording to Mr. Oesten, assistant to Prof. Rose:
MgCl KCl NaCl 9 CaCl ¥e(mixed) H can)
a0 31°46 24:27 5:10 2-62 014 = 100
2 S051 2497 455 O14 6 = 100
The water by direct Seger - 87-27. Part of this water is united to the
chlorid of calcium, 2-54 p.c. in No, 1, and 291 in No, 2; so that the water of the
J oreme is reduced to ons $8 per cent. The composition then becomes K Cl
The name Carnallite i is after Mr. von Carnall of the Prussian Mines.
gaat A 68 and Suppl. m].—An account t of the Cobre age of Sy a
de Cuba, b Ansted, is contained in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,
‘ip P 444].—On the o of the carbonate of iron in the oa Measures,
MER Moser Pros boot tee Watt Hist. 1866, 268, wot Amo. d. Sci, xi 280:
CHEROKINE, 0. U. Shepard—A « s yet imperfectly described by the
author, Crystallizes like pyromorphite aren ot has the color of page ee
Specific gravity, 48, ike yo ear ge a of alumina and oa [ saa =5%
given, ae ena ste would s bility that the mine
of a sesquoxyd with zine, caledg a pse' gene DD.)
CHLOROPHANERITE, G. Jenzsch.—From the amygdaloid in the vicinity of
Weissig, It had been referred to chloro , and om chlorite (Daou?
i a ree a
Min, et, 1855, 798.) in a partial anal Silica 59°4, proto nae iron 12: a, water
ov m oa
Streak G. = 2684. be vial
Th muriatic y apple gr iiscoi, no een, the silica separa’ According to Site
the particles of a or rei — yr ified, a slight double refraction.
Pproaches nearest m Iceland analyzed by yon Walt Rrecit
me gave, Gi B08 ay 5on0, st, Ca 0005 Mg 4954, Fe 15°723, K 5-036,
4444 = 98131 (Vulk. Gest, p. 301).
Cunvsourre [p. 184, and see 1, 11].—A mineral looking like some kinds of
‘fun
he T rol, in a taleose tine rock
Soot of eal f calcite, ge ag ¢ i collection of M. A of Paris
252 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
has been analyzed by M. A. re and shown to be Chrysolite. He obtained
(L’Institut, No, 1148, xxiv, 4, Jan. 1856):
Si Ti Mg Fe Mn H
36°30 530 49°65 6°00 0°60 1:95==99°80
aay 18°85 211 19°50 1-79 0:13 173
Pango have the oxygen ratio 1:1, as in chrysolite. po the
sae: acid is not ascertained. [This mode of occ ce of
~seh g is sb en to that of the Boltonite (chrysolite) in granular limectali
2 ve Glinkite (another bebe in talcose slate. May it be that the titanium is
a mixture with titani —p.|
Nistoxire and Heppurre [p. 465, and Bouse 1t].—According to R. P. Greg,
Ea. in a recent letter to the author, these two species, though curious in them-
selves, have been found to be artificial.
p. 887 and Suppl. 1].— Analysis of fibrous copiapite (stypticite) from
one oni by E. Tobler (Ann, “chy Phar. xcvi, 383) : Saipbtins atid 31:49,
sesquoxyd of iron 31:69, water 3682 =
fp.8s 0].—Observed rather pee! by Scacchi about fumaroles
after the eruption at Vesuvius in 1855 (op. cit., p. 195). = of it is in a brownish
friable beats obtained by dissolving the maling crus ai —o essen in brownish-
es hexago nal crystals. Also asa yellowis ish crust, in many parts tinged green,
mpact in texture, and with a very bright ore in 5 tie fresh fracture.
Crroute [p. 97 and Suppl. oy —J. W. Tayler, Esq., bas given a descript tion of
the mode of occurrence of eryolite in Greenland, with wood cut Salve tia in the
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. xii, 140. The locality is at Evigtok, about twelve m
Arksut, on sed emits of that name. The rock is gneiss and granitic gnebil It is
intersected by a vein of quartzrock containing coarsely crystallized feldspar, eryo-
lite, and ores oe irom, pid ey he tantalum, ete., running about southwest, pee:
other small olite; and de the east and Pach! there is a trap-
dvke. The main mass of ray forms a be vein paralle strata
nearly east and west, dipping S 45°, and is shout 80 feet thick ee 300 long. It is
bounded along the walls by a band of spathic iron, quartz, and in seme parts by
fluor and galena, while near the walls in the cryolite there are more or less galena,
ssite i i
copper and iron pyrites, ete Tantalite and cassiterite occur vg lite. The
ena contains 45 oz ilver to the nd is worked. In low
rege is black, and the white ros of the upper Pa is = airbus - pee re to
heat. e author infers “that the trap now found a’ pee be vyolite ol
tt Ai it, heating it ees ially and r vaaiotig
CYANOCHROME, Seacchi—A sulphate of potash and copper, among the pro-
cts of Vesuvius, at the eruption of 1855 (op. cit. p. 1 sitome blue crystals
obtained by dissolving and evaporating the saline crust, from the lava of Vesuvius;
also in azure blue spots upon the white crust. Com aa ey ak + 36a) ee 3H.
Form of crystals monoclinic. C (or So of rates xis) = 75° 8
Occurring planes, O, 14, 2i, iz, 1, Z 2 0: oa $04 0: nasties 56,
O:1i=1419 47’, 0: 2i1= = 116° 49’, I: “fading
Analysis of a ete op pe athe Chili, by E. Tobler (Ann. Ch. u
xevi, 383): Sulphuric acid 32:41, — of iy te per 80°77, water rics loss) 36° v2=100,
decomposition o cai ypyrite.
Darnourre [p. 334 and Suppl. 1, a —- Schréder has made many n w measure:
—_. of Sate it > epi ( Pogg i, 84) a“ concludes from: them that the
the tan ORG of the axis, 90° 7’. He figures a a crystal
os ot mtg in that table,
eke See ot Fea ee re ae a ee re Se es ee teen e i Ee eee
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 253
etiam oiineiinina ling sali
O
hl 22 | 24 | 9 li
4i 44| 49 | 44 | 43 2i 2
aa Zz. 2 | 33 Bieri
ora act 42
4 43 jf | =
cea Macaca ABT Sal SMS panne Riera cave, 62 | 68
-33 Sar: =|
es | Se Se a, 82
—2i -2 ot x Siete es
— at be iad + 2
Andreasberg. —
42
—2i -2 Z
Feet Fee E'S ee ae
Be sail
Be a0sa2
American.
_ [The —o for convenience of comparison, are made to corr a ave
in the Min. p. 385 ; _by oe for e sna - the axes a: 6: fe,
they are converted in ose 0 er. To w farther ee ef ‘the
American crystals of Peces 490, ro 493 of Min) a a table of as Pmes is added,
the form being tak li In the e prism of
* lead 26’ (7) is the densaad one, while i in those of 1 Europe, that of ie 44’ (i2) is
Selivider gives the following values to some of the angles; J: J=115° 19’,
12:12 76° 36, 99: 99 oe ord 58’, -2:-2 (front)==131° 43’, O:ii=
90° 7’, O: 2¢=185° 8/, O: 23 = 141° 7, O: 22= 147° 39’, 0: -2 = 130° 77
ALLOGITE —A variety from Oberneisen, named Himbeerspath by
Bethan sat atic 28 in acute rhombobedrons with truncated summits, afforded
tnbacher (Ann. Ch, u. Pharm. a aa Carbonate of manganese 91°31,
“elon of nse 6 5: 71, curb of iro’
Dotomrre [p. 441, and gees 1, 1], near Lettowitz, etc, Moravia, E. F. Glocker,
Jahrb, k. k. geol. Reichs, 1855
Dorreyoysrre nd Suppl. 1, 11].—Ch. Heusser is species anew
in Pogg. xevii, ral Forme é ae eee ik i fi "pena ( Te cube with
angles replaced by cube with cube with planes /, 2-2. 3;
cube with planes J 2 2-3, A Gotabetioey 6- im Color i fresh fracture “black, some-
es brownish o r greenish; streak cherry-red. Hardness a little above that of
fluor ; brittle.
Ertnore tore [p. 206, and Suppl. m].—Occurs in beautiful gage “2 Roseville, Byram
Township, Sussex Co, New au y.—Kitchell’s Geol. Rep, p. 1
—Occurs in Tennessee, at different places, and most
Ersomtre + remarka-
by at the ae, Fea in anneal in a mountainous region on the head waters of the
ipa Fork sed — an Under the shelving ruck, (“rock-house”) masses
Sord’s Re “Ey ree laces in Spain especially in the province
of Toledo, near a oll | i oe i nig arts at the eruptions of 1850 and
i, op. cit. p. 1
254 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Ervsescrre [p. 38]—Analysis of ore from Coquimbo in Chili by W. Bécking
(Ann. Ch, u. Pharm. xevi, 244) :—Sulphur 25°46, copper 60°80, iron 18° 67==09'93.
Feupsrar [p. 228, and Suppl. 1, 11].-Analyses (1 to 4) of Glassy eer by
Dr. G. Lewinstein (Ueber die Zusamm. des Glas. Fel dspaths, etc., posh , 18 56). N
1 from volcanic sand, 2, 8, 4, from trachyte and trachytic conglomerat:
Si xi #e Ga Mg Na K
F. cee Eifel, Hs 65 1891 —- 149 076 445 '774=100 G.=2578
28 883 —— 042 O81 115 131
2. ee 8 ve. . e 091 1:05 O88 249 11°79==100
Oxygen, 3030 029 035 064 1-96
3. Drachenfels, res $61 1645 158 097 06538 204 1234100 G—=2°60
Oxygen, 3440 769 047 027 0°20 052° 217
4. Pappelsberg, [6603] 1787 052 047 019 608 886=100 G=2616
Oxygen, 8428 835 016 013 O07 155 1:50
In No. 3, the silica as directly determined equals 66
The analyses give quite closely the tenia nse R Si+8 Sis. | If the iron
be taken‘as protoryd, the well to the formula 9R Si+7# Si*.
Heusser refers the Hyalophan of Walters — ~ ppl 1], to Adularia
es with
in ifferent ¢ m
te blowpipe, she found — tale os om Moreover dotainit and heavy
often occur as other impurities and partly may account for some of the resaltalt
the analysis.
The Weissigite of G. Jenzsch has afforded him (N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete. 1855, 800):
Si Al Mg Ca K Li FI, loss.
a. 65-00 19°54 161 0-19 12°69 0:56 0°35 ==99°94
, * 65°21 0°55
aloidal cavities, in layers with chaleedony, etc.
No. 1 is rion the sida or otis. of two layers, the color flesh red ; 2°551—
nya oti i ria is from a second a ay” color paler rose-red to Meddich-white ; a=
— ge! aes or the proto: be ds and sili No 1
315: oa 33°75, cheno te i“ go Pe of i ee No, 2
is a pera Hy after Laumont tite.
nalysis of No. 1 above comes nearest to the feldspar of Radeberg (see
Suppl a, Prose feldspar).
The same amygdaloidal cavities contain the chlorophanerite and the weissigite.
Bischof rdbaiied (Lehrb. Geol. ii tee from a feldspar pseudomorph after
ba from the Kilpatrick Hills "(whe e others occur with the form of anal-
i Pe a 6. Mg =—* "Nes
6200 2000 064 060 trace 1654 1-08 08% 1019
Oxygen, 32:19 935 - O19 17 261 O27
Ferausontte.—See Trrire, this Supplement.
FREIsLesenite [p. 79].—A ie which has been referred to Freislebenite and
is probably near Bournonite, scribed as new by — in eo xeviii, 165.
—. rs 7 tables (2 paieiaens thick and a oss) of the mono-
day em, with two planes making up each margin of the ‘ible. Acute plane
angle o ear about rt Pa. ==? 6. G=6 a 2606. Color iron th streak black. Brittle.
BB. fuse asily to a black chining globule and yields finally a globule of silver.
bere silver soneticuten oo i a cent. The charcoal becomes covered with fumes
pa ae. the mineral probably consists-of silver, lead, antimony;
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy 255
avactiTE [Su 1, 1].—In the author’s 1st ee ip te: Pring acs
: 1855), he prdatiad - that the asters of galactite a i ¢ formals
of natrolite, whence, he concluded, that galactite is Rt rolite. ee
specime ‘ - gianna 1 have since been examined by Dr, eda oie Mag. ‘sh
Xi, 272), an mposition of natrolite eee in eae
(1, 2, 3) are hi eentta together with analyses of related
Si Al OGalSCONa
: Glenfarg, oe 48-24 2700 082 14:82 oa = 10012
47-84 27-112 4312 11-304 1024 = 100808
3 Campsie Hille, 47-324 27:36 263 - ‘954 10. 392— 101-060
4. Bisho ptown, white, 4760 2660 0-16 “36 56 = 99:78
5. “ "pink, 47-76 2720 0-93 is 2 956 = 99
: Baating net } 48.033 25:26] 2313 13-975 9-723 rete: om Pi tigeen 573
7. Dumbarton Moor, 46-96 26-908 376 1283 9:50 —
ENA [p. 39, 506, and Suppl. 1, 1].—A galena cnt 87 p. c. of sulphur,
i is 51°30 of a of lead has been observed at Neu-Sinka, Sitenbang and
— y mann. This mechanical mixture hie been called super-sulphu-
lead and ie Joleittonite Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs. 1855, 1
Garver [p. 190, and Suppl. 1, 1].—An analysis of the green garnet which occurs
in brevicite on the a of Stokoe in the Brevig Fiord afford Dr. D. Forbes (Edinb.
N. Ph. J. [2], iii, Jan. 1856):
Ae Al #e Mn Ca Mg Nad loss
ai 8-73 20°55 2:40 32-09 trace -- 1-27
4 33 84 918 20°31 31:92 oe
23:94
30-1 id
ts Stead to the formula, as Dr. Forbes states, ({Ca?+4#e) ato
ee = eager 35° fle pes 32:98, eoraioxys he = (alumina) 31:41=100,
iden in composition with lanite, notwithstanding ite —
The cals lie together, forming 6-sided RE 7 are di stinct »mbic dodecahe-
oe Color fine leek-green. G. (from 76 crystals at 60° F.) 3
Melanite from in Teil tuhl afforded Schill (G. Leonh. Min, Badens, 1855, in
Ny, aes 1855, 838):
Si Al Oa M, Fe Mn
45°80 11-00 22°10 2-00 18:25 770 = 99°85
= ‘Suppl. nr, under Garnet, for Bi read Si.]
BERTITE [p. 223].—E. Zschau states his Heyes that wither ¥ at Graupen is
dre fom topes, : here it occurs associated with topaz, tin ore, fluor, apatite
ries : rat the same he regards as ear true of ‘the gee of Al-
tenberg, Ehrenfriedersdorf, ete—(Letter to G. J. B, a3 under Unpirz.)
Gtasenrre [p. 65].— According to Scacchi {cp cit., p. 186) this sulphate of pot-
~ which is not ome at Vesa nae rather abundant at the eruption of 1848,
sparingly in that of 1
Gvaxo—Prof. C. U. Shepard has given names to t portions s of the har-
dened or = “ petrified” potatoes i en in the Soca Sea (Am. J. Sei, Pa
XXil, 96) ing ony collectively pyroguanite minerals. He remarks that the guano
se jected to th
* : zp etertee 0
* ed waters. The same kind covers unhardened - gigind Boies ee
Pay rose i i i e 4
ish color, he has named pyroclasite, the name alluding ‘a its fying to pieces when
ated. t, J ‘4, consi
of lime and 10 p. c. of water; while the remainder is made up of a little fiesta
Matter, Moh er of lee cl Meee adh lime, sulphate ar z soda ger traces of chlori
256 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Another of the so-called specie is named Glaubapatite. It is described as occur-
ring in small tabular crystals, and in druses, forming botryoidal and stalactitie -
masses, with columnar radiating flattened fibres ; also massive ; —- r pale yellowish
or greenish-brown; translucent; H.=3'5; G.=2°6. Also chocolate-brown to nearly
black when massive. Chemical examination afforded, redhat ‘of ser 74:00, sul-
phate of soda 15°10, water 10°30, organic matter, sulphate of lime and chlorid of
rdium, a Sabor =99'40, [From the composition obtained, it can hardly be a chemi-
cal com
Epiglowdite is Bo name of the third guano product. It occurs “in small aggre-
gates or interlac asses of te semitransparent sabrnal of a shining vitreous
lustre, which are pms yplanted upon druses of glaubapatite. H. about 2°5.” It
upon
is stated to be “a largely hydrated rs ose opie of lime, <r may also ae
d hele? save acid,
magnesia an. n dilute m B.B. fuses easily to a
transparent colorless glass ee g dan ti
Gypsum [p. ac and Suppl 1]—Gray’s Cave, Sumner Co., Tennessee, affords
fine specimens of selenite, snowy gypsum, and “ alabaster rosettes.” —Safford’s Rep.,
p. 119.
HARRISITE, @. U. Shepard—A sulphuret of copper, like copper glance in com-
seg but cubic in cleavage like the artificial sulphuret. Occurs in in imperfee tly
edrons, and also disseminated in seams and massive. lor
grayish-black. G@==5-4. Occurs at the Canton Mine, Georgia, with galena in —
ii aie idan of staurotide. A mass of 50 lbs. has Sas ou out.—(Rep. on Can-
Heppuire,—See under Conistonire.
_ Hematire or Sprcutar _ [p. 113, a Suppl. 1].—Scacchi has made
Besides these, there are octahedral crystals, some ‘eo their edges truncated,
which are very brilliant, and according to exact measurement the octahedrons are
regular or aa ae ese octahedrons are int aaeited, i intricately so, by
microscopic lamin which cut through para foe . the octahedral faces, and -
nit edro
The specular iron of the oo has often some magnetic qualities. 8 lamellar variety
of the eruption of May, 1855, does not affect the magnetic needle, but manifests
sensibly polar magnetism with the * Conan mete bohedral crystals with
cate ment — the valley of Cancherone, stals from
he needle, an lar wit ea A gro up 0
tals roa: the same eh a united o <odh of hematite, is notabl y magne tic and
magnetipolar. Octahedral 6, oo intersected by lamelle of hematite are strongly
magnetic “ vee sibly magnetipolar. stalactites £7 hematite vary much ia
Ir iG. qua -
Prof. Scace’ sarc whether an: . he cr ono are psendom and whether
they are magnetite altered to hema’ of oF ema te to mete A He says the
first is not probable, as hematite is “the sak pestis f sublimation about the
voleano; and the second cannot be, as the wpetals then shesuldl be all rhombo!
bac gea he se the sesquioxyd of iron is dimorphous: but on this point more evi-
requi
co Cut (4) Nin C. U. Shepard—No description given, exbept as follows Ang”
n (Ga.) Mine, ae ae white ‘earthy shell, sometimes thicker t
, On Marcasi a mine affording galena, copper rites pga
pial nee automolite. “It i is a ‘Sydeets phosphate of nithnina With ae oxyd
e
*,
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 257
ee [p. 170, and Suppl. 1, m].—Crystallo graphic and optical relations to
pyrox » W. Haidinger, Sitzungsb. Akad., Wien, xvii, 456.—An_ important paper.
Bilis cir [p. 456, and apt ]. apa by Prof. OC. U. Shepard as observed
oe re n Mine Gell orgia (Re 56), “at one spot ike ie os heat taeak where
und in very beautiful tak aed crystals, lining small cavities of botryo oidal
white soe -pyrit
Leap [p. 17].—Native lead and lead ochre are r reported as occurring at Zomela-
buacan in the state ~ era = re z, ina mete by M. Néggerath (Zeits. d.
i The amygdaloid from near Weissig, accor ing to G. Jen times contains
in its cavities native os Winget be pyrites Weissigite, shitaenia Gaurd galena,
abr Min. 1855
Native lead is sath to occur als the Altai (v. Hingenau’s Oest. Zeits. 1854, in
N. Jahrb. f. Min. ete. 1855, 837) seven miles from Mt. Alatau in v2) _ region. It
8 ae as accompany ing limonite, magnetite, and galena, in irregular
a dra n weight. Grains of native lead are also found with “the: gold near Ekath-
erinenburg i in the Urals,
Levorre [p. 231].—The leucite of the modern lavas of Vesuvius, accordi to De-
Ma (L’Institut, No. 117 73), contains much more soda than that of ‘the old lavas of
omma. The i
la
(Fossa Grande). The same for me lavas of 1847, accordin Damou'
Rammelsberg (Monatsb. — a vest 1856, 148) 34 publis ‘hed a
Paper on leucite ere its pseudomor eters
Portion of soda in thn slbagadl delatthet® anda a8 cl plans
Levoopyaire (p. 61, 507]—Composition by G. A. Behncke eal xcviii, 187):
ae
Geyer G=6246—6321, 607 5894 1°37 Ps 9999: 30
2 Breitenbrunn, G.=7 282—T- 259, 110 6985 105 27:41==99-41]
Regarding the sulpbur penne combined with part of the iron and arsenic as mis-
Piekel, the analyses, this excluded, become—the ae aie nic 67:06, iron 32°94=Fe*
As"; the 2nd, arsenic 72: 19, iron 27'71=Ke As?
_Xetaavire 41, and Suppl. 11—D. Forbes and . Dahil. (Nyt. Mag. £
%i,) mention a m2 ; ce of mse Ee Keilhauite weighing 15 ag corning *
Alve in N orway. , or =a. “Two parler cleavages cross at 138°. Color
dull brown, _— e le diny 9 _ ow. B.B infusible and unchanged. Specimen
near Naresté had G.=3 519; and a pale grayish brown, from Alve, G =3'603.
In the Edinb. x. . Ph. Ji, [2], ii Jan. 1856, Dr. a — — gh _ percentage
he oe acid should read 28-04, instead of 28 mpariso the angles of
als with those of sphene, made by Professor Miller of Gumbridge, is here
= [p. 1701—Analyses by Rev. J. A. Galbraith (J. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vi,
165);
Bi «#l «Fe Ca Me K Na @
a Dalke 23 034 103 671 060 8u3=—98-42
2 Killin Petes kaa 5045 30.13 353 — 109 481 095 753=98 54
The first H. a Lies 3:10; and the
ee ne n ration for R, #, Si and H. 1:
aoe 176.296; which Mr’ Galhraith takes at 1:6:1278, and writes
ks formula i Suaiesie ait The results agree very ts we = of Lehunt
Blyth, an m the analysis of Mallet sag Min. a 170]. Specific gravity
SECOND ae VOL. XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT.,
33
258 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
of me . — of the same in fragments 2688. Lithia was carefully looked ao!
and none found.
Styria, ‘according to to Fr. Foetterle (Jahrb. k kk. te Reichs., 855, 68). Analysis
afforded, Mz G 9922, Fe 069, CaG ators insoluble 0-09; another a2 be bey,
94°77, 154, 0°86, 283, Specific gravity =30338. H=15. R: R=
Maroasire [p. 60].—An analysis of a specimen from the Oxford in near Han-
itt ea Dr. A. Vogel, Jr. (N. Jahrb. f. Min. etc, 1855, 676), Sulphur 527,
iron 4
Mispicket [p. 62, 509, and Sabet: 1, 1].— Analyses by G. A. Behncke, in the lab-
oratory of Prof. H. Rose (Pogg. xevili, 184):
8 Sb Ss e
. Sahla, Sweden G.=5'8205, 4205 1:10 1852 37-65= 99-32
2 Alienberg, Sienta, ee 042, 43:78 POS, i SS 34:35 = 99°43
Freiberg, Saxony, 6 046, 4463. ——— 2038 44:32 = 99:53
4, Landeshuth, Silesia. Be =6067-6106, 44:02 092 1977 3483= 9954
Sh in 1, with trace of Bismuth; in 2, trace of copper; in 4, trace of copper and
The — a analyses correspond closely to the ee formula Fe As?+Fe S?.
For No. ehnecke writes the formula 83Fe S2-++-2Fe? As*, But it has me same
depeialline for m as the true mispickel, and the deaciies: eomposition may t
due to impurities,
An ore related to series. from Zwiesel, pore G.=6-21, afforded Dr. A. Vogel,
Jr. on acl pada (N. Jahrb. f. Min, a 1855, 674), Arsenic 54°70, su Led 4-44, iron
35 20=97'34. This is near the result of Jordan's analysis of an ore from the mine
Felicitas of Andreasberg, which ga ve; Avene 55-00, iron 36°43, sul hee 8'34=99 79.
- Gives the formula Fe S+-Fe? As§, while that of appa mispickel is Fe S?-+Fe
*, and therefore the author regards it as a distinct
Nirre [p. 483, and Suppl. 1.—The nitre caves of Tennessee occur along the lime-
stone slopes and in the gorges of the Cumberland table-land. A a y is formed
for working the nitrous earth in White County.—Safford’s Rep., p. 1
Opat [p. 151].—According to E. F. Glocker, in avin Moravia, a meta noel
limestone associated with gneiss contains a wn hornstone and green opal
(Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs, 1855, 98). The hoi site nade 32 ick, and in
contains cavities with quartz crystals. The opal has a beautiful: leek
green c color, passing into yellow, brown and black, and occurs in a layer to 2 in
ick. Unghwarite is sparingly associated with the oes and occasionally pellucid
hyalite i is found in grouped concretions in a cale sin
Ozocrrire (P. 474, and Suppl. 1].—In the Carpathi istone formation.—-Glocker,
Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichs., 1855, 101.
PA AITE.—A sulphuret of molybdenum ee 8 of sulphur to 1 of mo-
ben ( (MoS*), has been thus named by Haidinger—E, Zschau, in a letter t0
Prctourre [p. 305, and Suppl. m].—Radiated ¢ P Gre IF of olite occur in
Ayribling having the columms 3 feet in length.— RP. Gr -
Pravzire [p. 469].— According to Kenngott, occurs at sit Chum ne ar Tulfer in
Styria; and near Tuifer, 3700 pounds (avoirdupois) have been obtaloull It is @
black revi much resembling a slaty and lamellar black coal—Jahrb, k. k. geol. Reieh-
sanst.. 1855.
PoE OMERID, Seaechi—A A sulphate of magnesia and copper, (Mtg, Ou) 8+3H,
obtained with the cyanochro esuvius Y iad soe tt and similar in form, the
two mee isomorphous, tins color white. =75° 12’, O: =
', 0: 2i=116° 41’, T: I=109° soOned dit. “4 ‘91
— [p. 838].—At Sternberg in Moravia.—Glocker, Jaheb. k. k. geol. Reichs,
+
|
]
|
i qT: 2! 86° 36" 85° 24’
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 259
Pratixum [p. 12, and Suppl. . sees ifort ion of the platinum of Borneo, by
Bocking of Bonn (Ann Pharm., xevi, 243) ‘asi Plating 82°60, iridium
0°66, osmium 0°30, gold 0-20, ee on 10 67, copper 0°13, iridosmine It
urs with yrains of sare gold, chromic iron, m ite. Among the plati-
hum grains, there are some octahedrons of _—_? egular form and a
0. U. Shepard, Am. J.8 » [2], xxii, 96—Found in grains o
kernels among the sands at the gold washings 2, MeDonald Co, N. Ct - guns
irregular and pitted, looking somewhat like those of chondrodite, H. —
ol ; bio reddish-brown to nearly black ; translucent ; lustre resinous 6 Galen
us.
eotpie sition undetermined, no analyses being given. Said to be “ Sapa A a
titanate of sa and iron, with only traces of glucina? and lime. also
contain zire
Pyroscierite [p 291.]—The steatite-like mineral from Snarum oceurring with
the Valknerite, partly resembling a tale and partly a mica, which has been anal ysed
by Hochstetter and Giratowski, is the subject of a note by Rammels sberg (Pogg.
svi 300), who bat analysed a specimen named mica from’ the same place. The
analyses give—
Si Al #e Mg H
1, 82:03. 1252 «9448 «= 875216 a ee ah Hochstetter,
2. 3U'02 13:2 31 879 170 Giratowski.
3. 8488 1248 581 3402 1868= ibe a, ae ae
The last (and the others rom! ibe tr give the oxygen ratio for R. #, Si,
1337:7°57:1812 :12-16=9 :2, and afford the formula ms wr Sir
the formula deduced by Hartwell for the Kieemnaresite of Bisse [The
Quartz ie Lee and Suppl. 1. ]—Capillary eystalit some an inch long, occur not
far from Walchow, Moravia.—Glocker, Jabrb k. k. geol. Reichs, 1855, 100.
ingul ip d structure in a crystal of quartz i ibed and figured by
Kenngott (Pogg. xevii, 628). A single hexagonal prism terminates in o prisms
Which coale e centre so as to make a te star of s
Quickstiver [p. 14.!—Near Cividale, not far from Gagliano, in ‘Veaslig ian Lom-
bardy, native isediver has been found in marl, connected with the “ macigno,
ded as t eocene nunimulitic formation. Quicksilver in drift de-
posits has — found at Sulbeck near Luneburg, at Illye west of De -
vanla, and at Montpelier. Near Eszbetek i in Transylvania, and near Neumarkt in Ga-
licia, springs issue from the Car arpathian Sandstone, car on are said ee to
yong & globules of mercury, especially after thunder storms—Juhrb. k. k. Geol.
Reichsanst., Nov - 1855, in Quart. J. Geol. Soc. xii, Misc. re
Ruovonire [p. 167, and Suppl. 1, Paisbergite. ee the name of Rhodonite,
R. P. Greg, Esq., has described some brilliant erystals from the Pai iron mine
hear Phillipstadt in Sweden, which Dauber has sere to Pasbergt Dauber’s
Measurements n in Suppl. u, re — Greg also makes the form
triclinic, though near pyroxene. The si wh
‘detong according to Greg, to which those obt
ing angles of pietaee are adde d:—
_ Grea. Dauner. In —
E:T gyo og 87° 387 70 5
P:-2'149° 397 149° 8937 144° gs”
260 Third Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy.
Figure 1 is on from Greg’s figure. It a the crystal flattened par-
ans ST Figure 2 is the normal form of the crystals, and correspon nds closely
him
ented
It remains to be ascertained whether there is ema Rhodonite with a monoclinic
form; in other words, whether Fowlerite or Paisbergite is not true Rhodonite.}
Sat-ammontac [p. 92.)—Reported by Scacchi as forme dat Vesuvius at the ery vt
tions of 1855, but, as usual, where - Se has spread over soil with vegetation. It
a presented ~ — of the rhombic dodecahedron with cavernous fac
_in 1850, it occurred in
aLt [p 90, and S ome cmon by Scacchi as anne the products of the .
Pp
Vauves eruption of 1855, (Op. cit.. p. 183,) occurring at a mall cone of erup-
tion. in small cubes, incrustations, salient. Some chlorid of potassium, and also
sulphate of potassa exists with the common salt in the stala Scacchi also
anno occurrence of chlurid of magnesium i “the saline crusts,
together with t anganese. The last was detected among the s
ucts eruption of 1855 (op. cit. p. 181.) It was detected in the crust by
treating it with met ao water and testing with we of potassium, when
whit ip wn down acquired after a while al
Srereentine [p. 282, he and Suppl. 1, 1.J—The pg! pee on Me Roxbury and
other places, Vermont, has been analyzed by A. A. Hayes (Proc. Bost. Soc. N H,,
Dee. 1B. and July 1856, and Am. J. Sei. xxi, 382 4 ‘and shown ~ cost largely of
oo of magnesia ; the associated white spar is this species pure. He regards
t -k as made up of this carbonate along with different silicates. AS average of
the rock of Roxbury afforded 38:00 of the car se yi and 6200 of associated min-
erals, The rock of Proctorsville, Vt., ware e 33: Me é. leaving 66 35 for ig
rest, pitiog ¥ Si 36°10, Mg 18°70, Fe, Ma 6 "3-40 40, Al 113, iy mic iron 0°92,
H62i= another specimen of the same, the magnesite to
ait ce was 2640. Ty 60.—The magnesite is attacked ty watts acid with great
same serpentines had ee previously examined by Dr. Jackson, who states
co still I holds (Proc, Bost. Soc. N. H., Feb. and July, fey that excluding the veins
and ixture of eaiticuiats of m en the serpentine has the usual compo
sition, being a hydrous silicate of magnes
Sriver ia 15].—A few filaments of native silver observed at a copper mine
mile from Cheshire barytes mine, Ct.—S. Smith, in Proc. Pat Assoc, ix, 188.
Smrrnsontre [p. 447, and Suppl. ee oe of Smithsonite Bors the
form of dolomite have been ohisar ed at the Lancaster zinc mines—W. J. Taylor,
Am. J. Sci., [2], xxi, 427
Spuene [p. 268].—A pulverulent ho chs sphene affording reactions for water
ve 5 sen _ pas oe acid, has been named Xanthitane by C. U. Shepard (Am.
(2), xx color pate yellowish white ; lustre aeGng tis hard-
pein 35; 37-80 No analysis has been made, Found in a decom posing
feldspar, associated with zircon, at Green river, Henderson Co., N.C.
Srannite [p. 512.)—Analysis by Bischof (Chem. u. phys. Geol.,, ii, 2026).
i n l a ign.
5157 38°91 453 = ‘O16 0-43 = 99°15
It appears hence to be a mixture of different substances. It is probably a erst 8
cali — feces « in which ti n ore has replaced much of the original ingr
with a small cvtlehich dal fraectur
Stavrotipe [p. 261 6 i ag at the Lead mine, Canton . Georgia, in n the quartz
quartzose unica slate which is the gangue of the vein, sometimes penetrating
a ‘and re. The sta i
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 261
Stisyrre or Stibine ( Antimony eee {p. 33]—Occurs in Katharinenburg in the
Urals. Kokscharov, Min. Russl. ii,
[p. 8 32]. ay mineral ae: to Stilbite has been described by J. W.
Mallet (this Journ, xxii, 179). Coa nular massive, reine cleavable, pearly on
two opposite facés, obese ante: a little en of calcite, G.==2°252.
With a. muriatic acid yields a jelly. Composition—
Al Mg ti — o a H
53 96 20°13 1 286 trace 12'49==100°23
corresponding nearly to Oa Si-+ Al Si? + eg the Isle of Skye, Scotland,
ee [p. 287]—Observed by E. F. Glocker, in Moravia and Eastern
Silesia, at Seitendorf near Tro oppau, Barn, two miles from Stern nberg in Moravia, at
Sternberg, a a Liskowitz and Wiichtersdorf, and Jessenetz. The rock containing
Mh ; It j 4
i s ofte
chlorite, calcite, an rae ae and boty hase with pyrites age limonite. Chlorite
especially is its common attendant. the two have close resemblances, so that
when mixed they are distinguished with some difficulty,
2
Tanratrre [p. 851] —Tantalite from Chanteloube in Limoges, has given Dr. G.
Jenzsch the following composition (Pogg. xcvii, 104) :
Ta Z iS e
1, 83°55 1:54 1:02 14°48 tr, ==10059 G.=1-708
2. 7898 572 286 Fels62 tr. =10068 G=7027—7042
The second analysis is of specimens partially oe by exp exposure. The fresh pieces
have a conchoidal Hakite georenet lic adam H.=6°5, streak iron-
ante to_blackish-brown. The specimens ssalyaeunt been ‘eeuived by IE Bose
m M. Damour.
oo. [p- 865].—Seacchi has bed (loc. cit.) an vg) Pcs pees
soda under the nam ame of femmes: (atleding to ~ aon gin) < nd on the
8
58’, 1:1, basal, =3135° 21’, pyramidal 123° 39” a8 74° 36’, 33 : 33 basal, = 153°
41", pyramidal 65° 48" and i oe 3° 2’. [The planes and angles are those 1 Pat
nardite, a described simhaieen of which has the “aiglan 135° 41, 123° 43’ an
74° 18/, “See Brooke and Miller’s Min, p.534, The angles in the author's Min,, are
from Hausmann.—y. p. .]
Trrro 11].—According to Dr. D, Forbes, the crystallization | a tritomite
dota i N. Ph. J., (2), iii, Jan. 1856). G.==3:908. Composition accord-
Si W ¥ tea Ge fe Mn H
2116 i 0 oat Nd ae . on 464 1241 37°64 268 1:10 868=9958
Dr. ae states that = received formula # Si-+- 2H is probably as correct as any
other which can at pres posed,
He
TScuErFKintre 41).—Deseription by Kokscharov in Min. Russl. ii, 150.
states that he apo of | of five specimens of the mineral, and that most of the so-called
Tscheffkinite is Ural-orthite
.,_Tyeire eee uh —This paeien. described by D. Forbes, is referred to Fe
‘erguson-
Me by A. K tt (Pogg. xcvii, 622). His specimens were received from Dr. Bondi
of Dresden ies
at species.
ested on sending haem a Baars ign re yer to a a te
crystal sufficient to establish its hemihedral pierce Srariictae aie Va correspovtence
in the occurring planes, these planes being O, 1, 83 [ figure in Min., p. : an d giving,
48 nearly as can be determined, rn same angles. Haidinger describes Fergusonite as
262 Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
having traces of a basal cleavage. These crystals show no distinct traces. Col
brownish-black. Lustre between submetallic and wa in og a a
ish brown translucence on the edge. Streak pale grayish brown. “ eas C=
another piece 5100, which is below that of fergusonite for wh Allan preee
5838, and Turner 5800. The tyrite ae decrepitates or the blowpipe
while the fergusonite visi very slightly so.
The evidence from fo form and most of the physical characters is so strong that we
can hardly doubt th ty
URDITE, D. Forbes = T. Dahil (Nyt. Mag. f. Nat. xiii)—Occurs in Bene
near Néterd in Norway stals clinohedral. Color yellowish-brown to brown;
streak ~ grayish yellow. vie stre greasy. Subtranslucent. .0 agment of a
ps tube no water. BB. infusible, but glows and color
mes dane o id ith borax in the reducing flame, a glass which is yel-
peri somewhat greenish while ‘hot, and colorless on cooling ; with salt of phospho-
po a skeleton of silica. No reaction of titanium or manganese. ; n charcoal
1856,) 5) the Urdite has the form of monazite, og is that speci es; he sta ates that
recognized the planes of Monazite, J, ii, -1i, -1, O, 27, and 28 f ay Min., p. 402.]
stal is about an aphet in len ngth and amie and half an: inch in thickness ;
its weight 20°5 eae It occurs in feldspar (in granite Eee eettig gneiss), and
also enveloped in orthite.
Vanapintre [p. 862, and Su ri . 11].— According to Rammelsberg. (Monatsb. Preuss.
Akad., March 1856, 153), the Vanadinite of Mt. Obir near Windise h-Kappel i in Bg
rinthia, nis for the a Page of ong to 0 tit she terninal in ytom 142° 80’.
wis fp. 415] Be bod of earth ae ‘(Eisenlasur), by H. Struve
(Bull. St. t. Petersb., Class. Ph ys-math,, xiv, 171
bg Fe Fe
29°17 21:34 21°54 27:50 et 99°55
19°79 8311 13°75 2610, Mg 7-37 = 100712
Found in crystals, perfectly colorless when first obtai thi nsand, near
Middletown, Neweiithe 06, Delaw ware.—Prof. J. ©. Booth " it seapise.~
erved in human bones.—Nicklés, Am. J. Sci, (2), st 46 i
he rit har is new mineral, described by E. E. Schmid (Pogg. xcvii, 108), is
renberg, near Ilmenau It resembles a mica, and is disseminated in grani
replacing true mica. The granite i is partly graphic granite. In oblong scales, sel-
dom r 1 millimeter thick, micaceous in structure; color leek green, and thin —
wn and
t
lustre pear rdness somewhat ve 2; sp.gr. 291. In a glass tube yields
water, exfoliates, and mes dark brown and metallic in lustre, BB. peat easily
to a black glass: and es the reaction of iron. Attacked by cold muriatic acid,
giv raoelitod ye low solution, thew the insoluble part becomes after a few days colorless.
Si a #e Fe M, Oa a i
33°83 13°40 842 23°01 8 ry) 2°04. 0-96 9°87=99°07
giving the formula R* §i+ #Si-+ 3H, which is that of Biotite, excepting the
name Voigtite is in honor of M. Voi igt, director of the mines of Saxe Weimar. -
iA” mineral of the same composition escentially, from Pressburg, Hungary, has
been anal by von Hauer. See Wien. Sitzb,, xi, 609, 1853, and cothove Mice
;
1
;
.
;
:
‘Blende—
Third Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 263
Vétxnerire [p. 134].— Analyses by Rammelsberg of the mineral from Snarum,
called also Hydrotalcite (Pogg. xevii, 296): is
Mg
1 2°61 87-27 19°25 4159 100°72
2. 6-05 88:18 17°78 87 991 = 100°00
3 ‘32 37°30 18°09 {[87°38] = 10000
4 4-30 87°04 18°87 8738 = 100 59
4 27, water 43:59=1 100.
Wirticaire gap et [p. 88, and Suppl. a. niet by E. Tobler
feng . Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, —(1) part soluble in muriatic aci id; (2) part race
ibid. ; (3) the whole sogethe
8 Bi Cu Fe
1, Soluble part, 1600 49°12 30°70 164 = 97:46
: — part, 1°26 0°53 0:86 127 = 3-96
Whol 17°26 49°65 81°56 291 101-38
The results agree nearly with those of M. Schneider. The formula may be
2€u S+Bi? S*; but the sulphur is not sufficient for it. It corresponds better with
the withthe to write it, 26uS-+-Bi* $2, or €uS+BiS; the iron being included
the €u
an loa of this ore from Wittichen is discussed by R. Schneider, in Pogg.
xev
Woure BAM [p. 351, and Suppl. 1, 1].—An imperfect clad ee of wolfram from the
West shore of “ ty Chief's Teland’ 1 st, has been described
by E. J. Chapman (Canaan wor [2], i, 308). It val found there in a boulder con-
— sed by a vein of coarse granite, containing red orthoclase and
g
ea!
le
:
Xrxotme ].—E,. Zschau has described the ‘epson of
Xenotime in senate ee of Hint tere, Norway. in the N jeues Jahrb. Fa .. 1855,
# tniberala.«. ste gcxton 3 with it are allanite n), poly-
ae. titanic j iron; and ver isle olinite. The pao 7 evotine ‘onetime
form regular twins with malacone (this Journ. xx, 273), an o have :
a ppeieulecs heli some crys stals of orthite 2 (allanit ie), ion iron aid po ly-
iS ts tails, we refer to the
Analysis of the Seantiai atorded, 30°74, Yttria 60°25, Oe 7:98, Si, Fe, trace,
Zixcire {P., nes Bere en 1. 11].—Oceurs at Schneeberg as a pseudomorph after
‘na 1853, in N. Jahrb. 1855, 841.
Additional references.
n localities —At ton M e, Ga., according to Prof. C.U. Bice ig fom
tee fora agg eee deve te, hite reece - spor Pye Craw A bee
30 to 56 yromorphite, plumbo-resinite “
me eset like mero ret pmo “ geet blende, ation ome enemy
tomolite, staurotide, kyanite, ilmenite
Minerals accompanying the Gold of ‘Australia, Quart, J. Geol. Soc, 1864, x, 808.
On the eee we pseudomorphs of Przibram, by E. Kleszezynski, Jahrb. k. k.
— oe 46.
264 Correspondence of J. Nickles.
; Ud
Art. XXIII.— Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris,
July, 1856.
technic School, when he was replaced by the distinguished physicist
Dulong. He entered the Institute in 1843. He died on the 12th of May
last at an advanced age.
ricultural Universal Exhibition—It is ten years since this kind of
Agricultural fairs are taking a more liberal range. This exhibition was
not as well attended as was hoped, and France was but moderately repre-
sented, there being hardly 150 French contributors. The animals ad-
mitted were cattle, sheep etc., pigs, and fowls. There was also a horti-
cultural exhibition of unusual beauty, where the Azaleas were combined
in great perfection of taste, with Rhododendrons and Calceolarias. The
ornamental trees were inferior to those of the Horticultural exhibition of
ast year.
The department of Pisciculture was a new and interesting feature in this
exhibition, There were several basins or reservoirs where the apparatus of
Pisciculture of the Collége de France and the products of the establish?
ment founded at Huningue (Haut-Rhin), were exhibited :—including saF
n from t anube and Rhine, the French salmon, trout, etc. ete,
comprising various species which have been acclimated without difficulty.
wo years since the experiment was begun towards stocking the artificia
lake which the city of Paris has made in the Bois de Boulogne. which is
supplied with water by means of a great steam engine; this lake, which,
as no communication with other waters, is now filled with trout and
salmon of the finest kinds.
brought into use, permitting the fecula to be sold 25 to 30 per cent
than other related products.
‘
Astronomy. 265
This fecula has been many times commended to attention since
Bachelier in 1615 brought the tree from Constantinople, (it coming orig-
inally from Southern Asia). Parmentier, Baumé and others sought suc-
eessively to bring it into general use. But
s
stance which was separated with difficult , and partly on account of the
dark shell of the nut, which it was thought necessary to remove before
extracting the fecula. E :
In the new process, the nuts are grated with the bark on, and treated
like the potato with its skin; the material is then washed in water as
easily and as economically as the potato, so that the price is not above
20 centimes per kilogram, the cost of cultivation and manufacture being
included. 20,000 kilograms of the fecula manufactured this year with the
apparatus that is used for the potato have settled the question of its im-
portance.
Astronom
tablishment of the “ Annals of the Observatory” is worthy of mention.
The object of this periodical is to publish the results of ee of
e i . é
towing this, a statement of the system of organization now established,
are next, astronomical researches of various kinds, with the prin-
ions.
This work whose numerous mathematical formulas render it of diffi-
cult execution, goes out almost without a fault from the ably conducted
Press of Mallet-Bachelier.
View of a part of the surface of the Moon.—M. Secchi, Astronomer at
Rome, has sent to the Academy a photographie view of the part o
oo" surface in which stands the crater at ee ro did
*out sestogq- The photograph was not taken di ,
but frome ten ‘asian with erst care on a somewhat larger scale,
and having for its base a micrometric triangulation of the principal points
of the area. The details were brought out with a lens magnifying 760 to
sketch
marking out the crater, such as is ordinarily had when the moon is ten
days old. After this, the details were separately made out, and then all
libration and change of distance. To avoid all these difficulties a general
was fi th
ee during seven consecutive lunations, without counting the time em-
Ployed Previously in practicing preparatory to the work
“Ss the drawing was intended to represent the gr Srcanend
area around is not yet filled with all the details that may be introdneed.
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856,
34
266 Correspondence of J. Nickles. .
After completing the design with every possible care, M. Secchi has had
copies taken by photography, one of which he has sent to the Academy,
The crater or annular mountain has two circuit walls. The outer, which is
the lowest, has a diameter of about 48 seconds (one second corresponds to
1820 meters); the inner, the true border of the crater, has a mean diam-
a
line, outside, both north and south, there are some small craters
After having established the perfect resemblance which exists between
e
in the moon is actually extinct, can be answered only after there shall
that he has undertaken the work above described.
Meteorological System of France.—N otwithstanding the enemies of
i - communication, the
servers under administrative direction was required, which should be.
perpetual and independent of the direct action of those constituting it
This is now realized, the stations being established within the telegraphic
bureaus, the assistants in which have Je a good education. The num-
ber of stations is now 25, and they are situated in the principal basins of
France. Each person in charge of a station is required to make three ob-
servations a day, but may make more at his pleasure. These observa
ations are registered in a book kept at the station; and at 7 or 8 o'clock
in the morning they are reported by the telegraph according to er
certed formula, to the Paris Observatory, where they are recorded on spe
cial registers, to be tabulated and published.
* The more thoroughly the volcanic mountains of the moon are studied, the —_
completely do they sustain the resemblance to the great boiling lava craters
of the Moon, in urnal, volume ii,
Kilauea of the Hawaian Islands, as pointed out by the writer in an article 00 the
Sooaag —-< i) and Series, page 830, 1846— —
fe
5 a se ee ee oe ee eee hee
ar eR, NS a apes tat aramee 8 ARG UTS oe ed iy een neta
Inundations.—Hlectricity, 267
This system has already worked for a month with entire regularity ; and
when it shall have been firmly established and have received the sanction
_ of time, M. Leverrier will undertake to extend the system to the neigh-
boring countries. The concurrence of Belgium is promised, and we hope
for that of England. Indeed, according to a recent statement at the Ob-
servatory, the brother of the Austrian emperor and the Royal Prince of
Sweden have promised to contribute all in their power to promote the ex-
the cause. On the latter point there are two opinions, some attributing
rain to hot vapors brought with the winds of Africa, others to the
Gulf stream descending very low in the ocean at this time and saturating
the air with moisture. Both theories consider the winds as carried against
the Alps, there to precipitate their moisture in the state of rain; and it
8 in accordance with this view that the part of Germany beyond the Alps
to the south and east has suffered from drought. 3
To these meteorological causes, supposing one or both real, we may add
the clearing away of forests, the opening of canals, and the means used
to facilitate the flow of waters, whence, a p of water makes a quicker
the rivers and thence to the sea, than in the ancient times o
to
‘uncultivated France. The rivers consequently enlarge suddenly beyond
_ Measure and commit ravages from which France periodically suffers. It
Seems the duty of science then to combat the evils due partly to the pro-
Stess of science. The organization of a system of meteorological ob-
servations is one step towards this end. The inspection of the pluviome-
ter may enable us to foresee by several days the increase of a river, like
that at Lyons; and if placed about the heights, the telegraph may an-
hounce six days in advance, a flood on the Saone, and enable the people
to put the rivers in a state to carry off the excess of water and prevent
t
kices— The cost of helices of fine wire, and the limit of thickness to whieh
the fine wire can be covered with silk for insulation, are two impedi-
ents which M. Bonelli has sought to set aside by very simple means.
He takes a band of paper of the height of the helix of an electro-mag-
het, or of the correspondin of a galvanometer; this band carries
Parallel to its edge, metallic lines a a’, 6 6’, ete., passing from one —_
ity to the other ; these lines, placed in the circuit, will give passage to the
~ ‘extremities free, the current may be made to pass, either along
'@ lines uni or in all of them at the same time and in the same
direction, oa fare
a
268 Correspondence of J. Nickles.
ppears to show that
the very refrangible and in part invisible rays which constitute in large
a
with two needles moved by electricity, which mark the hours and minutes.
The whole mechanism consists of three wheels, a pinion, an escapement,
and a double rachet, with a means of reversing the current: two wires
pass from the lamp to a regulating clock situated in the apartment of M.
Bréguet. This inventor proposes to divide Paris into 12 electric districts,
and place in each mayoralty a regulator which shall distribute ime
throughout the district both to the public lamps and _ private houses.
Gas and Steam. Manometer Alarm.—The same artist has made another
application of electricity, He has constructed an apparatus for informmng
the engi i
these metallic points is made to close a circuit proceeding from a a:
battery, and this puts the bell in play.
On a Cause of Atmospheric Electrieity—There exists between the liv a
ing plant and the soil supporting it an electric current, which always
moves in the same direction, that is, the soil is constantly positive, the
lant continually negative. This fact, was first observed by Beequerel, a
r, and for several years it has been pointed out by him as one of al
Wt gt ERE eae, Pac ee | oe MN 2 dls hs
ee pee ae
PS ees ee
Bibliography. 269
causes of atmospheric eleetricity. On repeating the experiments a year
since, he was struck with the anomalies presented in operating on the
bank of a stream, in the water, and also at a certain distance from the
plant, and was thus led to ip the effects under these circumstances.
floods.
Bibliography.—Annales de 0 Chimatein de Paris publiées, par U. J.
Le Verrier. Vol. I, in large 4to, of 420 pages, with a plate. Paris;
Mallet-Bachelier. Price 28 francs—We have 1emarked on this work un-
der the head of Astronomy.
Guvres de Fr. Anaco.— Notices Scientifiques. Vol. IL. Paris: Gide
et Baudry.—This volume contains, Ist, A historical notice of the Steam
Engine; 2d, a Report on Railroads, historical in character, made to the
Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1836; 3d, A Report on the introduction
of the Electric Telegraph into France, a report combatted at the time by
“
obscurantistes” on the ground that the electric telegraph was a chi-
mera; 4th, a Report on limestone, mortars, hydraulic cements, native and
artificial puzzolanas; 5th, A series of remarkable articles under the title
of Navigation, treating of different maritime questions. An announce-
ment of the ‘subjects in this volume is sufficient to exhibit its importance.
Le Materiel Agricole, ou Description et Examen des Instruments et des
Machines usités en Agriculture, par A. Jourvier.—Paris: Hachette. 1
volume in 12 mo, containing in a concise and elegant form accounts of the
principal agricultural operations followed in France.
_ Notions d Hygiéne pratique, par le Dr. Iswore Bourpon.—1 volume
in 16 mo. of 380 pages, treating fully of the general subject of Hygiene.
Theorie de Logarithmes par Tanner, Doctor és Sciences mathemat-
iques—A pamphlet of 92 pages in 8vo, Paris: Hachette. ge
lements de Geographie, par CortaMBert. 1 volume in 8yo. Paris:
Hachette—The author is a Professor of Geography of high reputation
with the Parisian public, and his works are in good demand.
Precis d’ Histoire Naturelle, par M. De.aFosse. th edition in 1 vol-
Sci & Uindustrie et aux Arts, en
1855, par L, Fieurer, M.D., Doctor és Science, Redacteur du Bulletin
Scientifique de la presse. 1 volume of 788 pages in 12 mo.—This small
as been well prepared, and has in view an exhibition of the principa
applications of ge ea relating to the Steam engine, Steam Sam =
Clocks, Electricity and Railroads, Photography, Photographic
engraving, Galyanoplasty, Stearic candles, Electric illumination, Heating
*
‘270 Scientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
js CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. Som . Haperiinents in Electro-physiology ; by Prof. Marrevect, in
a letter to ‘Dr Faraday, dated May 1, 1856, (Phil. Mag. [4], xi, 461.)—
I think Ihave already told you that for some time past I have been
making experiments in electro-physiology. Allow me now to communi-
cate to you the results of my work.
I have lately succeeded in demonstrating ee measuring the phenome-
non which I have called muscular respira This respiration, whic
consists in the absorption of oxygen and ra £ esksilation of carbonic acid
and azote by living muscles, and of which I have determined the princi-
pal eaten and intensity compared with that of the general i
of an ai been studied particularly on muscles in contraction
have pared that this respiration increases considerably in the ant “of con-
traction, and have measured this increase.
A muscle which contracts, absorbs, while in contraction, a much
~~ of we and exhales a much greater quantity of carbonic “acid
han does the same muscle in a state of repose. part of the
Mabon: acid ochidee in the air, the muscle imbibes the other part, which
puts a stop to successive respiration and produces asphyay of the muscle.
Thus a muscle soon ceases to contract under the influence of an electro-
magnetic machine when it is enclosed in a small space of air; this cessa-
tion takes place after alonger interval of time if the muscle is in the open
air, and much more slowly still if there be a solution of potash at the
bottom of the recipient in which the muscle is suspended. Muse Seas hick
have been kept long in vacuum or in hydrogen are nevertheless capable,
though in a less degree, of exhaling carbonic = while in contraction ;
this proves clearly that the oxygen which furnishes the carbonic acid ex-
which gives rise to heat, is also represented by a certain quantity of vis
viva, or by an equivalent of mechanical work. I have therefore been able
causes of this slight difference: these two numbers are therefore suffi-
ciently in accordance with each other
Ihave completed these researches by: some new studies on induced contrac-
tion, that is to say, on the phenomenon of the irritation of a nerve in con-
tact with a muscle in contraction. A great number of experiments latel:
b
Chemistry and Physics. 271°
viva, according to the same mechanical laws.
per or iron, on which five of the prepared frogs are fixed. rough the
; .f bane d 2 cats in e
contact with the frogs according to the methods generally empl ved,
a Mileniam-—Cetteliins bia a to elon 0 apr
em. lxvi, 257) is monoclinic. J: [= 64° 56, 22-22
front edge) = ee 40’, C(or O: ii) = 104° 6’, 0: }4 (clinodome)= 142°
54’, O: 1 = 124° 48’, O:-1=112° 36’. wk
3. Iodine—Crystalline form (Mitscherlich, J. f pr. Chem. Ixvi, 265)
rimetric; J: [= 112° 48’, 0: 1=112°4', 0: 1i= 126° 13}, O: =
115°57’, 1%: 14 (top) = 72° 27’, 14: 1¢ (top) = 51° 54.
Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
d to be still hot when picked up, though this is doubted. The
Mass is a small one, ad is aeoimed over the surface. It resembles much
SSRN Ne a CS ee gee Neen, NEE oc
S.
272 Scientific Intelligence.
that of Bohumilitz. In the outer crust, there are pieces of schreibersite
and protosulphuret of iron. The Widmannstadtian figures are large,
=7'737. Composition of this and the Bohumilitz irons:
Ni Co Ph = Schreibersite
om 92 5°693 0791 (0862 0277 = 100°380
2. Bohumilitz, 92°173 5667 0235 — 1625 = 100, Berzelius.
2. Meteoric Iron of Cape of Good Hope——Analyses by Uricoechea and
i, 246) -—
Boécking (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 2
Fe Ni: Co. Pa: Cu 20,8
1. Uricoechea, 81-20 15:09 2-56 0-09 trace Schreibersite, 0-95—99:89
2. Bucking, | 81-30 1523 201 088 trace « 0°88 =99-50
3. Meteoric Stone of Mezi-Madaras in Siebenburg.—Analysis by F.
Wohler (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xevi, 251) :—Native iron 18-10, nickel 1-45,
cobalt 0°05, graphite 0°25, magnesia 23°83, Fe 4-61, Mn 0-28, Al 3-15, Oa 180,
Na 2:34, K 0°50, sulphur, phodphioruk and oxyd of chrome undetermined,
silica 43°64—=100. Separating 19°6 p. c. of nickeliferous iron, the rest
was subjected to muriatic acid. The insoluble part and soluble part gave:
Si Al Mg Fe Ga Na XK Graphite
1. Insoluble, § 18502 0-564 4-660 4-643 0-929 0:85 0-347 0°250=30-480
* (In 100 parts, 60°70 185 15-29 15:25 305 191 1:13. 082 =100
2. Soluble 6-336 2-586 19°170 —— 0-870 1:°755 0-153=50°920
? (In 100 parts, 51:84 508 3764 —— 1-70 3-44 0:30 =100
was collected at Vesuvius in May, June, September and October, 1855.
The gas collected in September, 1855, from one of the fumaroles of the
erater over the small central plain, from which vapor of water with sul-
The white mineral of the Vesuvian lava of recent eruptions is probably :
-leucite, it having the specific gravity 2°48, and the oxygen ratio for the
bases and silica 3:82. But it differs from the leucite of Somma in
Fossa
Grande) leucite 1:21. Moreover in the crystals from the lava of 1847,
as he learns from M. Damour, this ratio is 1: 1°67,
| Mineralogy and Geology. 273
Gulf of Peluse is 113 kilometers (70 miles). It is a sandy and nearly
barren region, to the north more gravelly. The southern half is com-
pletely sterile; the northern produces the vegetation peculiar to the des-
erts, on which the camels feed. Ou the borders of Lake Tismah, over
the dry parts of its bed, and on the channel leading to Wady Toumilah,
tamarinds grow in abundance. The sands of the isthmus are fixed, that
18, not movable, and there are therefore no dunes. In some places there
are minute disseminated crystals of gypsum, and also deposits of the
same 6 to 15 inches thick; in other places concretions of carbonate of
lime occur over the surface of the sand, and on me ills, one or
In the basin of the Bitter lake, shells occur like those of the Red Sea,
mong which a species of Mactra is very common. It is pro
basin contained water: but it was fresh water which was brought there
by the canal joining th® Nile and Red Sea. It is a controverted question
whether the
274 Scientific Intelligence.
mport it from England at great expense,
discovery of the coal mines of Peru dates from the introduction
of steam engines which were established by the Company of Abadia in
1816 in the Cerro de Pasco, department of Junin, The first bed was
is constructed for burning charcoal. The climate of the Cerro del Paseo,
a place situated 4,352 meters above the sea, is consequently more sup-
portable.
The coal beds of Rancas have a north and south direction and a dip to
the west.. They overlie shales and sandstones and are covered by the
same rocks. There are many flexures and faults, as in the coal regions 0!
Belgium and elsewhere. The principal bed is quite large ; the coal is ex-
cellent, giving much flame and little residue, and serving well in forges;
its structure is not as schistose . i
beds have since been discovered. Two leagues from Cerro, in
plored by a Portuguese company.
* Ann. des Mines, [5], vii, 1855, p. 459,
Mineralogy and Geology. 275
On the descent of the Quebrada de Vinchos, in the peak of Churca,
there is a bed of coal which I discovered. I believe it
re 1s an Important bed which is yet to be explored.
The extensive silver mine of Hwallanca has near it beds of mineral
coal, 4 to 5 varas thick, and of excellent quality; and it is probable that
ted for its famous castles of the ancient Incas. Near the mine of Oyon,
Province of Cajatambo, several beds of superior quality have been ex-
of silver, lying upon magnesian carbonate of lime, and whose explor-
ation has lately been undertaken by an American (U. S.) company, has
not responded to their expectations. The village of Oyon is 3,621 me-
ters above the sea level. a
In the hill of Za Vinda, on the road from Obragillo to Cerro de Pasco,
at an elevation of 4,613 meters, I have observed coal in horizontal beds:
between sandstone and shale, containing fossil shells which were. too im-
ec
Ae source of several salt springs or streams. ee
In the peak of Aranvaldpan, there are several other mines of good
: i inferi ity. Near
ac, explored by M. Alexander Verastegui, but of inferior quality.
| Huaypacha, shore: a bed of lignite. At Chupalea, near Puipuy, —
exists in a bed of considerable extent; also of superior quality an
oe is also said to occur = the road from Farma
to Jauja, and at the Quicksilver mine of Huancavelica.
; rs sin : t ‘ds were discovered at the Quebrada of Mureo,
Nevado de Sullaly, whose summit is covered with perpetual snow and will
hever be scaled by man. I think that the height is greater than gon of
the voleano of Arequipa, which is 6,600 meters. All travelers who pass
the foot. towards Lampa or Puno, suffer from extreme cold and dizzi-
from the rarity of the atmosphere, causes which in some seasons
276 Scientific Intelligence.
have occasioned the death of the animals themselves. The Quebrada of
Murco trends from the northwest to the southeast, and consists, as far as
in view, of sandstone and black schist. Fifty ranchos (huts of straw or
stone) are occupied b the natives in charge of their herds, and this is all
the population. They cultivate Indian corn, poor peaches, together with
the Chilea (Eupatoria resinosa) a shrub that grows abundantly and which
dug into the ground makes an excellent fertilizer ~ four to six cua-
dras from these vidal on the banks of a strea m which is impassable in
the rainy season, there are some beds of coal in the slate, which dip to
the north, the strike east-southeast and west-northwest. They are ex-
plored at the surface for a breadth of some — and are associated with
ironstone and pyrites. I have observed other beds near, which a
to be of better quality. One explored under the direction of M.
has a breadth of more than a yard, and the coal has been tried in che Pae
cific steamers. It is carried to Arequipa, 15 to 16 leagues, for the forges
there in operation. I believe that it will soon be employed in the valleys
of Siguas and Vitor for the distillation of wine.
In the valley of Mages, near the property of petaeirett I have found
in a limestone a small and nearly Ait oe bed of coal which I have left
to ced ste he to explore. In the Quebrada of the warm springs of
Yur, agues north of sein I found, in 1827, coal im a
blackish achat like that of Compuerta, on the road from that village
uno. ere are said to other beds at Esquino, on the route
from Moquega, and at Morro on the way from Sama. From the nature
of the beds, coal may yet be found near Arica. There are still other
places in La Costa or the Coast Region, where it may be found.
Peru is not destitute of beds of mineral coal. But o owing to the
great a pt paying 20 to 25 dollars a to
7. Waters of Lake Ooroomiah ; by Howxs Wirt, (Phil. Mag. [4], xi,
257 )—The a of Lake Ooroomiah examined, were collected by
W. K. The lake, he says, is “about 82 miles in Lee Be
24 wide, its height being 4100 feet above the level of the
ter is of a deep azure color, but there is something etoendingly cain
in its heavy stillness and want of life. Small fragments of Fuci, saturated
with salt, and thrown ashore, form a ridge at the margin of the |
and emit such a noxious effluvium under a hot sun as to produce nausea
at the stomach. The sulphuretted hydrogen generated from the lake itself
without doubt adds to this sensation. The water is intensely salt, and
evaporates so rapidly, that a man, who swam in to bring me a bottle
the shes r for analysis, on coming out was covered with particles of salt,
and ne as white and ludicrous as though he had been thrown into 4
flour tu
The sample was taken from the lake at Guverjin Kalah, on the
north-western shore, on the 14th of sa or 1852, the temperature of the
water at the time being 78° F. at 11 a
As | received it (the cork having en well secured by a coating of wax),
the water still retained a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, and was
moreover supersatur carbonic acid, which it evolyed on being
Mineralogy and Geology. 277
shaken or gently heated. It was evidently a very strong brine, for it tasted
intensely of common salt, and left on every place on which a drop evapo-
of it for a few hours in a warm laboratory in an open dish large cubical
crystals, exhibiting the peculiar step-like cavernous structure of common
salt, separated in abundance.
Its specific gravity was 1:18812, and on evaporation it gave a total
quantity of solid residue amounting to 21856°5 grains in the gallon.
In the imperial gallon (of 70,000 grains) there were present 10470:439
grains of chlorine, corresponding to 1725427 grains of common salt;
@ remainder of the saline matter, amounting to 4602-23 grains, con-
sisted chiefly of alkaline carbonates, but also contained small quantities
of the sulphates and carbonates of lime and magnesia; the smallnes of
the quantity of water in my possession prevented the possibility of deter-
mining their actual amount.
To indicate the position of the Lake of Ooroomiah among natural
brines, I append a table showing the specific gravities, total quantities of
solid residue, and of common salt, in the gallon of several of the mineral
springs of Harrogate (analysed by my friend Mr. Northcote and my:
: | Total cn eS
Specific residue injsalt in t eB ‘
Name of water. gravity. the gallon,| gallon | Authority.
in grains, jin grains.
Seas
The Mediterranean....} .... 2870
do.
.... | Pfaff, 1889.*
wee. | 2851 | 1905 Laurens, 18304 —
‘ . el
do. aoe tat oe alc aT 7 cama
English Channel......) .... | 2660 |.... |Pfaff.
do. .--. | 2468 | 1890 (Schweitzer, 1839.t
German Ocean at the :
Frith of Forth....¢| corr | 2174 | ..-+ [Platt
Malia Bim ot. Kick inden ot pgp obits icc ak
Holstein ........ , :
Atlantic. ....., a ekee a 1:027 ..-. | «-- |A. H. and R. Schlagintweit.
BOL Oee 8S FON Fe PS do.
Harrogate Springs ‘ :
1. Old Sulphur well...!1:01113} 1096 866 |Hofmann, 1854§
2, Montpelier strong ) |, ao.
malphar well. t 101045] 966 | 803
: pt re ell. ¢{100516] 487 | 369 do.
me ueetads 2a V211 | 17220 | .... |Marcet.|
| Droitwitch brine... .. 11893 | 20157 |19392 |A. B. Northcote, 1855.4]
Stoke brine ........./1-2044 | 22256 [21492 a |
Lake of Ooroomiah _.../1:11812' 21856 |17254 'H. M. Witt, 1856.
* Pfaff, Schwartze’s Allgemeine und specielle Heilquellenlehre. Leipsic, 1839.
} Laurens and Schweitzer, Phil. Mag, [3], vol. xv, p. 51. leg
+ Phil. Mag. for 1855, vol. ix, p. 396, “On the Temperature and Density of the
Seas between Southampton and Bombay.” :
Hofmann, Quart. Journ. of Chem. Soc, vol. vii, p. 161.
Marcet, Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xx, p. 25.
Northcote, Phil. Mag. Jan. 1855.
*
278 Scientific Intelligence. —
for, and under the direction of, Dr. Hofmann), as well as of other brine-
springs, and the waters of certain seas.
The extreme saltness of this and the neighboring lakes would appear
to arise from the separation, at some remote period, of these masses of
salt water from the main ocean, together with the great Caspian and Aral
lakes; and the continued evaporation by constantly diminishing their
volume (as has been proved by observations on the spot) has caused them
ultimately to become, as they are, perfectly saturated brines: an 3
ftus states that there are other lakes in the neighborhood which have
completely dried up. leaving nothing but a great bed of salt.
. On the Koh-i-Noor Diamond, (from the Proceedings of the Ashmo-
lean Society, Feb. 12, 1855)—The Secretary (M. Maskelyne) made a
communication on the history of the Koh-i-Noor diamond. r
counting the fabulous and traditionary accounts of it existing stil] in In-
dia, whereby its antiqnity was carried back to the Indian hero Bikram-
with him his 4 or tributary the Rajah of Gwalior Bikramajit, custodian
of the fortress of Agra. It is reported by Baber to have come into tl
Delhi treasury from the conquest of Malwa by Ala-ed-deen in 1304.
Baber gives its weight as about 8 mishkals. In another passage he es.
him of the jewels of Aurungzebe differed slightly in themselves, and en-
tirely from his drawing of the diamond; but that the former, on the
‘as to conceal the lower part of it. It seemed probable, however, from
another reason, that the diamond Tavernier saw was not the one he im-
ined it to be, and of which he had doubtless heard descriptions in the
mines of Golconda, but the diamond of Baber Aurungzebe held bis
father a state prisoner. Shah Jehaun had been asked by his unfilial con-
queror to give him some of the splendid jewels which he retained in his
captivity ; at first, indignantly refusing, Shah Jehaun threatened to
:
ee
SE ee ee ee ne Si an ee
‘Mineralogy and Geology. ~ ; 279
escaped destruction, in the cutting,) which had been the pre of his in-
terference with the affairs of Golconda, and had been perhaps the ulti-
grain. It is obviously useless to multiply so small a number by 120,
T we could expect no accurate result, owing to the exaggeration of
P
and eight of these equal 596 grains, or 187:58 carats.* The Koh-i-] oor
in the Exhibition of 1851 weighed 186 carats. This would require a
Mr, Maskelyne went on to trace its subsequent history.
_ It remained at Delhi, until another, the fiercest and the last of the great
i India.
The history of Thamas Kouli Khan, Nadir Shab, is sufficiently near to
the present sas to fall almost within the field of European contest in In-
dia. Thi
a nsman” on the throne of Delhi, and exchanged
turbans with him,—so says tradition,—in sign of eternal amity. The 6
diamond of the Moguls was in the cap of, the vassal, and was salut oe
the title of Koh-i-Noor, “ Mound of Light” by his suzerain. It went
* The carat = 3°17 grains Troy weight.
280 Scientific Intelligence.
with all the fabulous wealth the Persian host bore with them to Khoras-
san. From Nadir Shah it passed into the hands of his powerless repre-
sentative Shah Rokh; but it was not one of the jewels —— ex-
torted from him by such frightful torture. The history of Ahm
founder of the short-lived Douranee empire, is that of many uke hie.
re names. The realms conquered by Nadir fell wea at his death ;
into an empire, schich extended from Moultan to Herat, from Pokaan
to Candahar. From his Affghan eyrie he descended to aid his old mas-
ter’s son in the hour of his adversity, sealed an alliance with him, and
bore back the great diamond whose beauties “its blind owner could no
longer see,” and which became once more an eeu symbol of friend-
reg between sovereigns of whom the recipient of the diamond was
stronger. om Ahmed Shah it descended with the throne to his sons.
The wild romance of Shah Soujah’s life was in no small degree linked
with this gem. Long hidden in the wall of a fortress that had been Shah
Zemaun’s prison, it shone on the breast of Shah Soujah when the Eng-
lish embassy visited Peshawur. Mahmoud reasserted with success the
claim of might to the empire of his brother, and Shah Soujah became an
exile. But his companion in that exile was the Koh-i-Noor, and, hunted
challenge the pages of romance. The Koh-i-Noor hdl n been true to
in the tiara of Indian empire. But it is no more the Mountain of
It is no longer the finest diamond known in the world : it has been
as well perhaps as it was possible to recut it*, and is now a brilliant,
~~ but 103 carats. Although no more the 8 mishkals of Dia-
that Baber valued at half the rent-roll of a world, it is the identi
oak gem that has contributed its light to the glories of every dynasty that
has — the East by the supremacy of its arms for perhaps a
yes
2. On the origin of Greensand, reer saya an the Oceans
of the
present epoch ; by Prof. J. W. Battey, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ¥;
p. 364.)—As an introduction to the subject of this r, it is proper to
ae to various observations which have been a eet facts Pua tely
: waiver artistic Metre. Gerard of the work, performed by Dutch artists under the pe superntend
rrard, the Queen's Jeweller, was admirably executed.
ae “he
. limestone is yellowish, and under a lens appears spot
SE ele aie ON Ms dna ei a Le
related to those which I wish to present. That the calcareous shells of
the Polythalamia are sometimes replaced by silica, appears to have been
first noticed by Ehrenberg, who, in a note translated by Mr. Weaver, and
published in the L., E. and D. Philosophical Journal for 1841, (vol. xviii,
p. 397,) says :—
by an acid, others remain insoluble ; but in chalk itself, all
similar forms are immediately dissolved.”
The first. notice of casts of the cells and’ soft parts of the Polythalamia
was published by myself in the American Journal of Science for 1845,
lieve have never been before noticed, viz: distinct casts of Polythalamia.
existence was scarcely to be expected, yet these casts of Polythalamia are
abundant and easily to be recognized in some of the Eocene Marls from
ington.” This notice was accompanied by figures of well-
defined casts of Polythalamia (I. ¢. pl. iv, fig. 30, 31).
Dr. Mantell also noticed the occurrence of casts of Polythalamia and
their soft parts, preserved in flint and chalk, and communicated an ac-
€ speaks of the chambers of Polythalamia as being frequently
filled with chalk, flint, and silicate of iron. (Phil. Trans., 1846, p. 466.)
To Ehrenber , however, appears to be due the credit of first distinctly
of Greensand, thus throwing the first light upon the origin of a substance
Which has long been a puzzle to geologists. In a notice given by this
distinguished observer upon the nature of the matrix of the bones of the
Slodon from Alabama, (see Monatsbericht, Berlin, February, 1855,)
“That Greensand, in all the numerous relations in which I have as yet
examined it, has been recognized as due to the filling up of organic cells,
4 4 formation of stony casts (Steinkernbildung) mostly of Polythalamia,
was stated in July of the preceding year.” He then refers to the Num-
mulite Limestone of Traunstein in Bavaria, as rich in green opal-like
Se (Opalsteinkernen) of well-preserved Polythalamian forms, and men-
Hons them as also occurring, but more rarely, in the Glauconite Lime-
of France. He then proceeds to give an account of his detection
of similar casts in the limestone adhering to the bones of” the Zeuglodon
from Alabama, and states that this limestone abounds in well-preserved
brown, green, and whitish stony casts of recognizable sc
green spots a Greensand casts of Polythalamia, and they often
uch as — et mass. By solution in dilute chloro-
hydric acid, the greensand grains are left, mixed with quartzuse sand, and
_ SECOND sERIEs, vot. XXII, NO. 65,——SEPT., 1956.
36
Mineralogy and Geology. 281
. R82 Scientific Intelligence.
with a light yellowish mud. The latter is easily removed by washing and
decantation. e casts thus obtained are so perfect that not only the
genus, but often the species of the Polythalamia, can be recognized.
Mingled with these are frequently found spiral or corkscrew-like bodies,
which Ehrenberg considers as casts of the shells of young mollusks.
With reference to the perfection of these casts of the Polythalamia, and
the light they throw upon the structure of these minute animals, Ehren-
are thus petrified, and separately exhibited. By no artificial method cam
such fine and perfect injections be obtained.” .
Having repeated the experiments of Ehrenberg upon the Zeuglodon
limestone, I can confirm his statements in every particular, and would only
add, that besides the casts of Polythalamia and small spiral mollusks, there
is also a considerable number of green, red, and whitish casts 0 minute
anastomosing tubuli, resembling casts of the holes made by burrowing
sponges (Cliona) and worms.
In the Berlin Monatsbericht, for July, 1855, Ehreriberg gives an ac
parts.
The interesting observations of Ehrenberg which are alluded to above,
have led me to examine a number of the cretaceous and tertiary rocks of
North America in search of Greensand and other casts of Polythalamia,
&e. The following results were obtained : =
Ist. The yellowish limestone of the cretaceous deposits of New Jersey —
occurring with Teredo tibialis, &c., at Mullica Hill, and near Mount Hor —
ley, is very rich in Greensand casts of Polythalamia and of the tubuliform
bodies above alluded to.
2d. Cretaceous rocks from Western Texas, for which I am indebted 1
Major W. H. Emory, of the Mexican Boundary Commission, yielded @ —
considerable number of fine Greensand and other casts of Po ee
and Tubuli .
i—_
3d. Limestone from Selma, Alabama, gave similar results. L
4th. Eocene limestone from Drayton Hall, near Charleston, South Caro-
lina, gave abundance of similar casts. reget
5th. A few good Greensand casts of Polythalamia were found in the —
residue left on dissolving a specimen of marl from the Artesian Well e
Charleston, S.C.; depth 140 feet. oe
’
}
3
Mineralogy and Geology. 283
6th. Abundance of organic casts, in Greensand, &e., of Polythalamia,
ubuli, and of the cavities of Corals, were found in the specimen of yel-
lowish limestone, adhering to a specimen of Scutella Lyelli from the Eo-
cene of North Carolina.
7th. Similar casts of Polythalamia, Tubuli, and of the cavities of Cor-
als, and spines of Echini, were found abundantly in a whitish limestone —
adhering to a specimen of Ostrea sellzeformis from the Eocene of South
Carolina.
i n pe
shells of Polythalamia. It appears from the above, that the occurrence
the formation of precisely similar Greensand and other casts of Polythal-
amia, Mollusks, and Tubuli, is now going on in the deposits of the pres-
ent ocean.
homs, is mentioned as “a mixture in about equal proportions
Globigerina aud black sand, probably greensand, as it makes a green mark
when crushed on paper.” Having examined the specimen alluded to by
Mr. Pourtales, besides many others from the Gulf Stream and Gulf of
Mexico, for which I am indebted to Prof. A. D. Bache, the Superintend-
ent of the Coast Survey, I have found that not only is Greensand present
at the above locality, but at many others, both in the Gulf Stream and
. Gulf of Mexico, and that this Greensand is often in the form of well-de-
fined casts of Polythalamia, minute Mollusks, and branching Tubuli, and
Ww
hite. In some cases I have noticed a single cell, of a spiral Poly-
284 Scientific Intelligence.
ing the well-defined casts are of wholly unrecognizable forms, having
merely a rounded, cracked, lobed, or even coprolitic appearance. Certainly
many of these masses, which often eo e whole strata, were not fo
either im the cavities of Polythalamia or Mollusks. The fact, however,
_ being established beyond a doubt, that Greensand does form casts in the
"“eavities of various organic bodies, there is a great probability that all the
masses of this substance, however irregular, were formed in connection
with organic bodies, and that the chemical changes accompanying the
decay of the organic matter have been essentially agate Abo the de-
posits in the cavities, of green and red silicates of iron, and early pure
wees It is a curious fact in this connection, that the anes organisms,
as the Diatomacee, Polycistinez, and Spongiolites which accom-
pay the Polythalamia in the — Stream, do not appear to have any
fluence in the formation of ¢
The discovery of Prof. eEidenbery of the connection between organic
bodies and the formation of Greensand, is one of very _ sg interest, and
is one of the many instances which he has given to prove the extensive
agency of the minutest beings in producing geological changes.
iI. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
1. Wild Potatoes in New Mexico and Western Texas. —We have re-
ceived from Dr. A.J. Myer, U.S. A, through the Surgeon General, a de-
tailed communication on the discovery in western Texas of what he takes
to be the common potato (Solanum tuberosum, L.,) in a wild state, ac-
pear with specimens of the tubers and of be ‘whole plant neatly
ee and prepared. Dr. Myer first detected the and near the
no Lacapel and afterwards ascertained that ste was ee widely “diffosed
if the vel-knows DOLCE were owing, as ma suppose, to an attack
of minute Fungi, or to a general debility of mart fora | 9 resulting from
prop»gation for generation after generation by the tuber, and seldom re
newed from seed, or from both these causes combined, the proper remedy
would be to begin anew with a wild stock; and that these indigenous
potatoes of our own country would furnish an caval stock for the
se, and one which —— be expected to resist the disease for a ts
time, if not alt
Such, in brief, is the substance of Dr. Myer’s commendable commut!
cation, made to his official st Ste the Surgeon General, and by him ‘f
fered for publication in this Journal. The article is too long to be in-
his laudable endeavors and observations ought not to pass unuoticed and
having given this very brief abstract of his principal points,—which he
(os Oke apes
a,
Li ig a A Rah ras US i A 2 ale ari I aa gn
Botany and Zoology. 285
has ably but rather diffusely elaborated, we take the opportunity to re-
(1.) That the wild potato-plant in question is a true potato, but not of
the same species as the common potato, the Solanum tu m.
in that regi One has a
white and 5-parted corolla, and oblong-lanceolate leaflets mostly acute at
Oo, an
the 18 allied forms recognised by Dunal as species (but perhaps all mere
varieties of one species,) a set of much smaller leaflets are interposed be-
tween the larger o
tween Eastern Texas and El Paso by the military road then opened
through that region: and again in 1851 and 1852, they were gathered
im various parts of New Mexico by Mr. Wright, Dr. Bigelow, and the
other naturalists attached to the Mexican Boundary Commission, who
recognised their near relationship to the common potato. _
(3.) Some experience has already been had in cultivating other and
nearly related species as a substitute for Solanum tuberosum, but without
e
(Prodr. 13, p. 677,) that the Mexican Solanum
ted two years in Switzerland, near Geneva, without being affected by the
_ Statement of Prof. Agassiz in this Journal, vol. xiii, p. 426, where he says :
“In regard to the eta called Cume, I aman say positively that
” ut
group must as a whole be suppr can state with confi-
dence that all the species of that genus which I have had an opportunity
to j ¥
alive—and I have watched three—are young of Palemon
286 oe Scientific Intelligence.
are larve of Macroura.”
4, Insecta Maderensia, being an Account of the Insects of the Islands
of the Madeiran Group; by T. Vernon Wottasrton, » ERS.
634 pp., 4to, with 13 well-filled colored plates, London, 1854. John
Van Voorst.
On the Variation of Species with especial reference to the Insecta, fol-
lowed by an inquiry into the Nature of Genera; by T. Vernon Wot-
eon M.A., F.LS. 208 pp. 12mo. London, 1856. John Van
oorst.
The first of these works is an elegant quarto volume containing full —
descriptions, of the Insects of the Madeira Islands, with remarks on their
pon the tow
though clear and cold at night, seldom reveal themselves during the fe!
with sufficient constancy (through the heavy canopy of cloud w
vine, or a stray bird hymning forth its matin song to the ascending suD}
feel the cool influence of the carly dawn on the upland sward, and to
Botany and Zoology. 287
tiark the thin clouds of fleecy snow uniting gradually into a solid bank,—
affording glimpses the while, as they join and separate, of the fair crea
tion stretched out beneath; to smell the damp, cold vapor rising from
heaven, as brilliant as they were on the first evening of their birth ;—
are the lofty enjoyments, which the intellectual mind can grasp in these
transcendent heights,
“It is needless however to pursue the picture further, for it is impos-
We are convined, will be more than enough to prove the reverse, pro-
e
vided the adventurer be not altogether insensible to eptions from
without, or incurious as to the wor ings of 1e €3 ernal universe around
him. This owever, we need scarcely add, is sine gua it
of bliss; but he that serutinizeth trifles hath a store of pleasure to his
hand: and happy and wise is the man to whose mind a trifle existeth
not.”
“The great expense necessarily attending the publication of a work
like the present one will be a sufficient guarantee that it has been un-
dertaken purely as a ‘labor of love,’ and with the sole aim (within its
peal boldly to observation, in situ, as the test by whic most «
sire to be judged,—having but little fear of the experiment, and believing
are never in so ble a position for deciding on the relative
nee of Zoological differences h e local circumstances
Th i hilosophical feeion in science through
€ second work discusses a philosop q Raabe While
nera.
‘Taking the preceding considerations into account, the question will
perhaps "i ow ne is a genus to be defined? To which I may
288 Scientific Intelligence.
reply that, were 1 asked whether genera had a real existence in the ani-
mate world, my answer would be that they undoubtedly have,—thou h
not in the sense (which is so commonly supposed) of abrupt and discon-
nected groups. I conceive them to be gradually formed nuclei, through
the gathering together of creatures which more or less resemble each
squadron have more or less in common. So that it is only in the middle
points that these various groups, respectively, attain their maximum,—
every one of which (by way of illustration) may be described as a con-
centric bulb, which becomes denser, as it were, in its successive compo-
nent layers, and more typical, as it approaches its core.”
The main topic of the work is the variations which species undergo.
He illustrates it by facts and urges the importance of its study as the
foundation of our knowledge of species. With every species in nature,
organic or inorganic, there appears to be a normal type admitting of
librations in many of its characters, on either side through external influ-
ences; and the complete idea involves a knowledge of the extent and
simply absurd; for as Lord Bacon has remarked, the “subtility of Na-
ture far exceeds the subtility of reasoning :” but if, by a careful collation
of facts, and the sifting of minute particulars gathered from without,
we must except those races of animals and plants”
ard of evidence as we require for those which have remainet
for ever untouched and free,—especially so, since (as we have already
Botany and Zoology. 289
observed) it does absolutely appear, that those species, the external
aspects of which have been thus artificially controlled, are by constitu-
tion more tractile (and possess, therefore, more decided powers for aber-
tation,) than the rest. Whether traces of design may be recognized in
this circumstance, or whether those forms were originally selected by
man on account of their pliability, it is not for me to conjecture ; never-
theless, the first of these inferences is the one which I should, myself,
e@ & priori inclined to subscribe to.
a few domesticated creatures of a singularly flexible organization present,
should not unnecessarily predispose us to dispute the question in its
larger and more general bearings. Nor should we be unmindful that
(as Sir Charles Lyell has aptly suggested) “some mere varieties present
greater differences, inter se, than do many individuals of distinct species ;”
for it is a truth of considerable importance, and one which may help us
out of many an apparent dilemma. .
But, whatever be the several ranges within which the members of the
organic creation are free to vary, we are positively certain that, wnless
the definition of a species, as involving relationship, be more ihan a delu-
ta:
limits be fixed, is irreconcilable with the doctrine of specific similitudes.
Like the ever-shifting curves which the white foam of the untiring tide
ebb and flow; but they have their
to, to
parts, in their general outline they remain steadfast and unaltered, as of
i i : sti ’d to feel
“Still changing, yet unchanged ; still, doom
Seidbadsonaition in perpetual rest.
ica; by Joun
5. On the Fresh water Entomostraca of South America ; by
Lussock, Esq., F.Z.S., (Trans. Ent. 8vo, iii, N.S., Part vi) —Mr. Lubbock
who has taken up the investigation of the Entomosiraca with great
7 is, Ania bra-
from South America, Cypris australis, C. brasiliensis, Daphuu
siliensis, and Diapleslte Graslinsit They were collected by Charles
Darwin, Esq.
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 65.—SEPT., 1856.
37
290 Astronomy.
Iv. ASTRONOMY.
1. Shooting Stars of August 10, 1856.—During the night of Friday,
August 8th, 1856, the weather at New Haven was stormy. ex
night on account of the cloudy state of the sky and other obstacles, no
observation for meteors was attempte us.
On the night of August 10th—11th, observations were commenced by
Messrs. Francis Bradley, Charles Tomlinson and myself. Until about half
one
aad this time onward, clouds interfered more and more, so that by 2!
50™ 4, m. of the 11th we left the field. During the period of observation,
about 3 hours and 45 minutes, we noted two hundred and eighty three —
different shooting stars, as follows:
11 5™ to midn, W.N. W. 21
“ « N. E. 12
« * 8. 1447
Midn. to 1 a.m. 11th, W.N. W. 54
- - ee 27
" 8. 19———_100
1 to 2 a.M,, W.N. W. 31
- 4 N. E. 21
E Ss. 21——73
2 to 2 50™ a. M. W.N., W. 23
* ” N. E, 24
és ss s. 16——63
In general characteristics these shooting stars resembled those of the
August period in former years. The visible paths of a large part of them,
if traced back, would meet in the vicinity of the sword-handle of Perseus.
Some moved in other directions, and a few appeared to go ‘towar
neral radiant. Several of them equalled in brilliancy stars of the first
magnitude, and left sparkling trains behind them.
The present being leap-year, it is probable that the meteors were more
numerous on the night of the 9th-10th, than on the night succeeding.
Ea
t is hoped that Mississippi will now make a beginning—the first eat
ing in the Southern States—to contribute effectually to the
&
aa
Cc
be |
a
es i
3
®
7
o
=
oe
°
REE te le se, OG Oe ay ae at
2 = less soo y
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291
progress of the a of sciences ; and it is also hoped that this institu-
tion may be the means of awaken ening to activity, _ Meee. on to its
full development, that native talent in southern youth, which, when it
now appears, too often relapses into inaction, for the want of a field for
its exercis se.
They are therefore making steady and large appropriations for the in-
crease of the library, for additions to the — of philosophical and chem-
ical nage aii for minerals, shells, &c., &c., all of which are _ ly giv-
ing to the University the aspect of an institution of long sta
The earnest desire of the Board is also to palbonds ‘ate a spirit of
original investigation, by putting the means of researc
eir officers, and it can hardly be doubted that when the —,
shall have been carried out, which this enlightened policy ggested,
(which will be within two or three ey caption begga si yo or iek
versity, will place herself in a very honorable relation progress of
intellectual improvement in the world.
V. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
856.
forces which produce the various meteorological phenomena of California,
are much less numerous than in the eastern part of the continent, and -
on a much larger scale, and they are pr Sen more easily und nderstood.
ly anticipated.
Ist, the cold ocean current which rolls along the coast from northwest t to
southeast; 2d, the direction of the winds ; 3d, that property —
which its capacity for con —- moisture is increased with the : vation
of its temperature. The ocean current will no doubt as thoroughly exam-
ined in the course of the Coast ‘Butte ey. Dr. i. *8bbons, of San Francisco,
ascertained at one time its temperature to be 54 Fahrenheit.
Now, during the months, as soon as the rays of the
warmed the a over the land, it the colder and
heavier air rushes in under it from the ocean, producin
through the air, and compelling peo to put on over-coais and kindle
cold ai arenes oinieas ae by the land, of course its capacity for
holding and instead of there being any tendency to
292 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
n average bread
west to the Sierra Nevada on the east. It is a very flat valley, much
also in a wooden cabin covered with earth, a friend of the writer ob-
served the mercury at 110° and 112° during many of the days of 1850.
On the north side of a large two-story frame house, with but one other
house near, and that one several rods distant, the writer has observed the
mercury at 109°. But Dr. Haille at Marysville, by hanging his ther-
mometer in a draft of air in the back part of his office, where it was
shaded by high buildings around, succeeded in keeping the mercury down
to 102° during the summer of 1852 e sun rises clear in the east, rolls
up over the heads of the inhabitants, drying and scorching everything im —
sight, and sinks into the west—“ One unclouded blaze of living light.”
And this is repeated day after day, and month after month. The hottest
fte ,
time of day is about half-past five in the afternoon. The nights are
cession.
is marvellous ou go on board a steamboat at San Francisco at four
o’clock in the afternoon, and find the passengers, all dressed in winter
clothing, flannels and over€cats, huddled around the stove in the cabin
t 10t anthra e morning at sun-rise, you find
the Coast Range. From Benicia this range trends iniand, leaving < :
bee
The change from the cold climate of the coast to the heat of the valley We
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 292
*
five to ten miles in width, of great fertility and which, in the month of
May, is almost one unbroken field of waving grain. This plain is swept
are filled, without the slightest apprehension o er. No thunder
ever disturbs the serenity of the sky, These delicious valleys are indeed
ens west.
_ Besides these three climates in California, that of the coast, that of the
Interior, and that of the small valleys which lie among the scattered
the altitude.
__ +hese are the summer climates., In the winter there is no perceptible
difference in the weather throughout California, except the very small dif-
ference caused by the latitude, and the very great difference caused by the
a
England, or perhaps, it may be more nearly compared to our spring, from
eriasadie of | March ‘to. ike middle of May. There is no snow, though
_ Hosts are frequent. Near San Francisco, peas are planted in October, and
_ Strawberries are to be had every day in the year. Still, ive has
_ nown to form half an inch thick in a night. On the mountains, snow
falls to a great depth. Indeed, the stories which are told of its depth
Its accompanying dryness, does : gh nd
probably attributable 8 ihe diminished force of the sun’s rays in his with-
drawal to the south
blocks of wood, of various sizes. The vessel is rectangular, meas-
uring 64 inches high, 14 inches long, and 4 inch broad, being intended
for coins, not smaller than alf eagle or quarter dollar, and for
ore, the ore is first weighed, and afterwards its surface is moistened. —
The vessel is then nearly filled with water, and so much as is superftuous,
4
‘
small
are offered to the Society.
. The opening of the gold mines of California brought out a great
number of beautiful specimens of gold in the matrix (or mingled with
quartz) of the most fanciful forms, and every variety of size and value
n many cases it was presumed, by the holders of these prizes, that they x
would bring more money, as curiosities, than as bullion; and at any
rate, very many owners were unwilling to have such attractive specimens —
spoiled until they had been sufficiently exhibited. At the same time, it
was always desirable to know, pretty nearly, how much gold was acti
ment was interesting as a matter of scientific inquiry. Especially when
we could compare our estimates with the more definite and accurate isk «
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295
sults obtained by putting specimens or “ nuggets” through the regular
On one occasion a lump, weighing over
200 pounds, came to us for this purpose. It was sent by the Isthmus
to them, and with attachments for weighing in water. We therefore
had frequent recourse to the method advised by the elder Dr. Patterson
Garmactly President of this Society), which consisted in using a jar or
pitcher, rather larger than the specimen, and not over-large at the
mouth ; this was filled with water up to a marked line; and then, by in-
troducing the specimen, and bringing back the water to the same line,
so much water was removed as was just equal in bulk to the bulk of the
specimen ; the weight of this water gave the divisor, the weight of the
oe (taken while dry), the dividend, and the quotient was the spe-
avity.
f ie thus obtained were, generally, as satisfactory as those by
the usual method. And here it may be interesting to cite a few exam-
ples from our minutes, of specimens estimated by one or other of the
Processes mentioned, and afterwards melted down and assayed as regular
deposits,
or lump of quartz, containing gold, found by two Mexicans of the
“Sonorian camp,” in California, weighed 2654 ounces: assuming the
Sate at the sp. gr. of 2°60, the amount of gold appeared by sp. gr. of
¢ lump, to be 2094 ounces; the actual amount was 2114 ounces.—2.
rt lump, where we assumed the matrix at 2°64, gave an estimate
Of 1003 ounces of gold; the actual product was 100;5 ounces—3. Four
Pebbles taken together, estimated at 77 ounces; actual content 76%
In practice
us now shown was found to answer best. t
vate satisfactory substitute for the tedious and irk-
296 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
some method usually resorted to. Some few precautions must, of course,
be attended to. The vessel must stand firmly. If at first. the water
will not flow, or flows fitfully, the obstruction will be removed by blow-
ing a little in the spout. ited
An investigation of some interest, growing out of this matter, may
properly be noticed. Where we are operating on substances of low spe-
cifie gravity, say wood or stone, a drop or two o water, or the size of
the drop, in tapering off the divisor, is of no consequence. But it 1s
otherwise in the case of a gold coin, for example :—in a double eagle, _
a half-grain is, on the average, the smallest of clean water that will de- 4
be J
a fluidrachm (page 1405). The differences are very remarkable; i
tilled water, for instance, being set down at 45 drops, and pure alcohol
at 138 drops. And in our own experiments, the drop of alcohol was
about one-third the weight of the drop of water, from the same pipette
This seemed to point to alcohol as a substitute; but there were obvious
objections, and a much better vehicle was found in soapy water. aia
e best white soap, sold at the shops, is of the same specific gravity
cannot conveniently give this measure in figures), the cohesion or tena
ity of the water is so much weakened that the drop is reduced to one
tenth of a grain. No other fluid makes so small a drop as this, Ane —
there is the further advantage, that soapy water, though excellent
making bubbles, is less liable to retain them below the surface than pw
water. So small a drop, of course, makes the experiment more tediot
and, by using less soap, the size of the drop will be, in many cases,
vantageously increased. = s - * a
Discovery of Paleozoic Fossils in Eastern Massachusetts ; by Prof. a
W. B. Rogers, (from a letter to J. D. Dawa, dated Boston, August —
13, 1856.)*—You will, I am sure, be surprised as well as pleased by the a
news I am about to tell you. You are aware that the altered slates an@”
grits which show themselves interruptedly throughout a good parte
Eastern Massachusetts, have with the exception e coal measures
the confines of this State and Rhode Island, failed hitherto to fu
geologists with any fossil evidences of a ic age, although
aspect and position they have been conjecturally classed with the system
of rocks belonging to this period. Indeed the highly altered co dition
of these generally, traceable no doubt to the great masses of §|
and other igneous materials by which they are traversed or '
. * This important paper was received too late for insertion under Gxorocy.
ie
Miscellaneous Intelligence. oon
ceous slate which lies on the boundary of Quincy and Braintree, about
ten miles south of Boston, and to my great surprise and delight 1 tound
~ dallasting material for wharves, but until now the locality has remained
lying at various levels in the strata. So far as I have yet explored the
rock, they belong chiefly if not altogether to one species, which on the
i gassiz, as well as my own comparison with Barrande’s de-
rt
&
S
8
E
a.
&
5
5
incy specimens.
. In this connection I find in Barrande a remark which, at the same time
___ that it is historically curious, has an interesting bearing on the specific
affinities of our fossil. e observes, “ We see in ditferent collections,
especially in that of the School of Mines and the British Museum, under
_ the name of Paradoxides Harlani, from the United States, a cast of a
Trilobite, which appears to us to be identical with P. spinosus of great
_ ‘Size, such as found at Skrey in Bohemia.” : .
_ It thus appears that the vagrant Par. Harlani, so long an obscure exile
2 has at last been restored to its native seat, to t e@ a conspicuyus place
In the most ancient dynasty of living forms belonging to the geology of
England.
New
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 65,—SEPT., 1856.
38
298 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
rhood i is not a little peared) by the circumstance of its being the
only instance, as I believe, in which forms of this genus have bee nol
anywhere on the so Barrande after speaking of its restriction to
Protozoic strata in Bohemia, Sweden, Wales, &c., has the following ob-
lani. The first of these is known to be a Lichas and we know nothing of
the other The care with which Hall has described the Trilobites of the
Lower Silurian rocks of the country in question is sufficient proof that, he
had not discovered any trace of Paradoxides at the time of ee
the first volume of the Paleontology of N.Y.” I may add to this,
in no subsequent publication have IT seen any reference to the finding
fossils of this genus in the rocks of this continent ‘
_ The occurrence of well preserved fossils armong rocks so highly a’ altered ;
so contiguous to great igneous masses as are the fossiliferous slates ee
Gitte cy, may well encourage us to make careful search in othe Ee ‘
Eastern New England, where heretofore such an n exploration would hav
been deemed useless, Although we cannot hope to build up th a
gical column of New England from the Protozoic base just established we. .
the carboniferous rocks, supposing all the intervening formations to
represented in this region, we may at least succeed in determining by
eat hereafter discovered some of the principal stages in its structure,
us relate its strata definitely to the great Paleozoic divisions. ot |
Pepale ‘hian Geology.
4. Hailstorm in Guilford County, me ms —On the 9th of June, 1856.4
ae of unusual violence passed over a portion of Guilford County,
N.C. An observer at Hillsdale in ia county, gives the flow dew.
scription. “The cloud came u 3 e sto’ 2
began with rain, thunder and lightning. In a few minutes hailstones of
been so much rain and that a very warm one. The weather wa
very hot, and there was no change of temperature during the w RE
lowing. This hailstone was a perfect globe. Others measured as lange
in one etn. but they were flat.”
e gr unds around us were so completely covered — leaves and
jaa of trees from the oak grove in which we were, t we had little {
chance to know what actually fell about us, A mile ie the storm =
was still more severe. The trees have a strong appearance of winter, and
ass, beaten, The storm pesto ss about fifteen miles in one direction —
nd five or six in the other. The hail fell in lines, a field here — :
we u there being destroyed, while intermediate ones — left uni :
uaii Lad a strong flavor of’ turpentine. be is
eae testing it at different and distant localiti
EE es SR aE mee Wee A ORY SEM
5. Monks Island or Colombian Guano; by Dr. A. 8. Precor, (Proe.
Amer. Phil. Soc., Philad. vi, 18¥).—In the spring of 1855, there was
a great effort made to involve in mystery the whole history of the article,
its locality being carefully kept secret. Gradually, however, it became
known that it was found on Los Monges, a collection of keys at the en-
trance of the Gulf of Maracaibo. It has also been found on El Ronca-
dor, off the Musquito coast, on Aves and various other keys of the Carib-
an Sea. On Los Monges, it forms, as the captains who procured it -
say, a thin polished crust over the entire surface. Below this crust lies
the common Mexican guano. In some instances, however, this same
- smooth incrustation covers thinly the jutting points of primitive and met-
amorphic rocks. I have before me a splinter of rock of this kind, crested
with an inch-thick deposit of this guano; and I have seen many in which
the white crust formed a thin lamina over the surface. any such were
attracted attention, and many analyses were made o
Sulphuric acid, - “ . 2 0%
Chlorine, - - A z ? reais
os ; ‘ : ere
— a : j jon LORD - trace,
uorine, é - oe : F z os 4
Sand (consisting chiefly of primitive rocks in powder,) coe
Water (hygrometric, é ne BI A bil ¢ 2
Organic matter, salts of ammonia (containing 0°22 o ant
monia) and combined water, - | Mi
in which are the alkalies (not estimated,) - ie Satie
100-00
| Kin wet Thus, in
The proportions of the phosphates vary in different samples. Thus,
one Specie recently demon, there was a very small proportion of
Magnesia and 4-23 per cent of phosphate of iron.
300° 2 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The organic matter was partly soluble in case acid, and esis
i potash. A cursory examination of it seemed to indicate that it ont, oe
sisted chiefly of humus and the acids of the crenic mone eo .
From this analysis I thought moginell justified in announcing thatthe
lime and magnesia in the compound under consideration are combined =
sults has convinced me that the announcement was somewhat premature,
and that the analysis sae not fully bear the construction put upon it,
I have, however, never changed the opinion then pdtaneed, as the a"
ve ‘s. Higgins and Bic
Jhief and Assistant State Chemists of Maryland, shortly after published
a paper in which they agreed with me in the main. Their analysis was
more elaborate than mine, and comprised two distinct examinations; ea
of the white, polished crust, the other of the body of the r itho
going into minutiz, [ will simply state that they found the exterior
to contain ane god = lime and magnesia, of the formula 3MO F
~vhile, in t y of the rock, the salts were com as I had previe
ously pein tn The ey also ascertained that in t. outer layer the =
phuric acid was combined with soda, while in the body of the rock it
ats to hapee
Soe. Nat Hist, « y, 349).— ‘Dr. Haye ik describes th e general characters
of the hardened tc guie, o, me — - rounded a — its heat
passes into soli fied “= which forms a crust or layer sad
The two ihds differ not very much in composition. After giving e
results of analyses and pointing out the existence of a very large p
centage of bone, phosphate of lime, and m magnesia, he argues that
guan > has been formed mainly from fish-bones. With regard to
change in consolidation he obse
“ Keeurring to the composition of guano-rock, we see that the propor
tion of organic salts and other organic matter, is much lat rger than exists
in the guano from which it is derived. The physical characters of the
rock are modified by the Preaance of these compounds, but the most re —
markable change is that from a granular to a compact 3 This
change could be effected by infiltration, as takes place from calcareous —
waters; but as the rock guano is above the mass pr oducing the soluble
organic salts, it is necessary to consider another condition. .
«When water holding saline matter in solution evaporates from the —
‘surface of the earth, pure water alone escapes, while the saline and col —
ored organic compounds remain at or near the surface, In accordance
with this law, the saline matters which can be dissolved, and the colored
matters which can be suspended, in water, rise to the surface, and 0
long as capillarity can act, they are deposited i in the porous parts,
the
the
Photograph of an engraving could be taken by the camera in a yery short
fime.—Roy. Cornw. Polytech. Soe. 1855, xii.
, chlo
hesium 6°8121, chlorid of calcium 1°47 19, bromid of magnesium 01838,
sulphate of potash, 0-0627 = 13°8790. Specific gravity 11160. The
water was collected in June of 1854.
0. Density of the Waters of the Caspian Sea; by A. Morrtz.—Mr,
Moritz visited the Southwest coast of the Caspian in the summer of 1850,
and obtained the following determinations of the density—At Derbent,
100524, at 22° R.; at Baku, 1:00616 at 221° R., and 1-00976 at 81°
R.; at Persien, 1-00583, at 226° R.—Bullet. St. Petersb. Phys. Math.,
_ xiv, 162-168,
ll. Well in the Desert of Sahara.—A well sunk at Tamerna in the
ara to a depth of 66 yards, gave on the 9th of June last a jet or flow
of water amounting to 3600 litres per minute.
12. Composition of the Water of the Delaware River; by Henry
Wortz.—The water analyzed by Mr. Wurtz, as cited in this volume, page
124, was taken from the Delaware River at Trenton, New ersey.
3. Aluminium.—aA watch whose works were made of aluminium was
on exhibition at the Paris Exhibition. :
14. Officers of the Academy of Science of St. Lowis, for 1856.—Presi-
dent, George Excetmany, M.D.; 1st Vice President, Hrram A. Prov, ,
-D.; 2nd Vice Preside: t, Narnanre, Homes; Secretaries, Bens. F.
Saumarp, M.D., Wx, H. Tineiey, M.D.; Treasurer, J. B. Eans.
of scienee. His papers in this Journal treat of topics connected with
Galvanism and electro-magnetism, in which he invented some new pieces
302 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
of apparatus, geology and palwontology, the earth’s magnetism, and the
invention of the Electro-chronograph, which he claimed the honor ie 2255
against one or two rivals. On the subject of the earth’s magnetism he =
extended much our knowledge, by his explorations over the regions of the
Northern Mississippi and Lake Superior. As a writer in Cincinnati ob-
rves, “he was an ardent student, a profound scholar, an indefatigable
gist. 224 pp.12mo, Philadelphia, 1856. -
The scope of this work is hardly indicated in the title. It does nob =
ns, especially in Pennsylvania. Neither is it restricted to the su
ject of Coal, but enters freely into the general topics of mountain struc-
tures and forms, the origin of mountains, formation of valleys, theory of
drift, topographical drawing, and directions to geological and topogra }
ical surveyors, yet mainly from an Appalachian point of view. [he
author was formerly an assistant in the Geological survey of Pennsylva-
nia, under Prof. H. D. Rogers. e has been an attentive observer, em-
and Andrew A. Henderson, who were once assistants in the Pennsylvania
Geological survey. :
The point in the volume that will excite most remark, is the claim ad-
vanced in behalf of Mr. Whelpley and Mr. Henderson, of having first
i . rs
nection with the subject. “ Years of patient toil,” he says, “it cost us to
unfold the mysteries of the Pennsylvanian and Virginian range,” including
the superintendent in a Geological survey. ee
. A Treatise on Land Surveying ; comprising the Theory developed
from Five Elementary Principles, and the Practice with the Chain alone;
the Compass, the Transit, the Theodolite, the Plane-table, ete. Il
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303.
structure, that it is the work of one who understands well both the prac-
_ and theory of his art. It unites great simplicity of illustration and
exuberance of practical detail, with a clea r exhibition of scientific
Ns ns in
platting and mapping ; and at the same time, demonstrations are
supplied, so that the faithful student will come forth intelligent as well as
skilful. The volume contains a chapter on the Government system
surveying the public lands; also Traverse Tables, a Table ais am of
sines and cosines, and of tangents and cotangents; and a e
United States showing the magnetic shige displaying to x eye a
= ae of great importance to the Su
18. Annals of the Astronomical Obserninsory of Harvard College. Pas
: : bri
rt I. exci pages, Cambridge, 1856.—The C
vatory, through funds resulting from the will of Josiah Quincy, Jr., has
commenced the printing of its A ; and the ret in justly bear
as .: Phillips 10 ,600 the itt of David Sea rs, Esq. and 10,000 ati the
si of Mr. Qui uincy. . This Jirst part of the opening volume i is Stier,
light was issued last year, comprises a catalogue of Godamental
rs, and of five thousand five hundred stars down to the eleventh mag-
bitade, with some of the twelfth ro aap situated between the parallels
of 0° and 0° 20’ of north declin
19. Manual of Blowpipe Matyi: for the use of Students ; by W1Lt1aAM
ning a Prof. Chem. in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. 78° pp-
12mo, New York, 1 856, G. P. Putnam & Co.—The student in Mineralo-
ay will find this a convenient and useful manual. It takes up the subject
na clear and systematic manner, describing the apparatus and re
and modes of blowpipe analysis, and giving briefly the — of the
gag rein and of the more common ores of the metals. There
also es of reactions to facilitate further the Slenjive analysis of
. “esgeertite
Barnarp D is and J. TavRNaM Ck a Britannica : Delineatic tions and De-
Scriptions of the Skulls of the sek “inhabitants of the British Islands, sa with
es of their other remains. Decade I, fol. ‘76 pp. with 12 plates, and wood-cuts
. rl witenge: A BSpplopesers of the British Diatomacee, with remarks on their struc-
ture. 2 vols, roy. 8vo. London, 1856. a eet
P. Detamorre: The Practice ¢ of Photography: a Manual for students
ed with a Calotype Frontispiece. 3d edit. revised. 12mo. London, 1856.
Miscellaneous Intelligence.
R. On the various methods of pention’ — pictures on
with suggestions for in. 12mo, i
A. oe Einige Beobachtungen ave dle Kre “defo aieae ion an der Nordkiste
Spanien. 16 pp. Svo, with a plate of fossils ; from the Zeitschr. d. deutschen
Gesell 1854.
R. W Ueber den Ozongehalt der Luft — — Zusammenhang mit der
Mortalitat, with a Wile: hing? Sa the 3 March,
‘Ercawatp: Leth gg en eh S Russia. Stut
IVth Paniber Vier of the Paleoaee vii leaves, 268¢ is with 23 tidbese, plates
Bacn: Ge Hie Uebersichtskarte von ete schland, der Sc Tone, bio
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Cotta, ete. and eres observations. _ 9 lithochr. char
with 1 18 | pages of text. Gotha, 1
H, Buametster: System ok Vobersiche der Thiere ;
Hit 3. Berlin, — ie pp. 321—426. eer
J. F. J. Scummr: Das “Zodiacallicht. Uebersicht der ‘eeiiiirigen
as! stata Hecho bachtngen iiber die Erscheinung in den Jahren pasa
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A. Moreau Pe jy gp hon stique de Industrie de la France. 8vo, xxiv
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HATIN: Anatomie Com mparée des Végétaux ; Comprenant
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| XV . Statistics of ane Flora of the Northern Uaited Sites .
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. XXIV —On American Geological History :—Address be-
+ fore she mage’ Association for the Advancement of Sci-
republishing this addres, the author has added various
ustration of the te The circumstances of the occa-
in which it was auigcret edad the introduction of
ied AN eaters Moreover, as the author aimed to give
in
both obligations to others as well as himself and oe science, aa hare
lore prompted the introduction of the notes
New Haven, September 10, 1856.]
* * * ein oe *
selecting a topic for this occasion, I have not been sinelie
ex) aa Before an Association for the Advancement of
se it urse on t.
est he ignorantly gather for you noxious weeds. I
fore, seca to pee en myself to a single ra “that
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1566,
39
of Geo:
of thé deat
intent or aim of Geological Science. It has been often said, that
Geology is a history, the records of which are written m the — é
rocks: and such is its highest department. But is this clearly ae
baa
appearance of man; and instead of saying
to determine r
into Ages, as has been so beautifully exhibited by Agassiz. The
successive Fee in the progress of life are the great :
histo: *
f plants or
appear to some extent in the preceding an poeta
_ trapsitions, either in the organic remains of the region, or in the
aeaeodcion oa t .
event in America was contemporaneous with a simi
urope. The unity in geological history is in the progress of
and in the great physical causes of change, not in the succes-
n of rocks,
_ iferous through the Cretaceous; III. The AGE or MAMMALS,
_ the Tertiary and Post-tertiary; IV. The Acz or May, or the
‘recent era;—/ishes being regarded as the highest and characterisic
Ag the first age; reptiles of the second; and mammals of the
-_ More recent researches abroad, and also the investigations of
Prof. Hall in this country, have shown that the supposed fish re-
Mains of the Silurian are probably fragments of Crustacea, if we
SKS.
ke the other two Invertebrate sub-kingdoms, the Radhate
Articulate, : iest fossiliferous
im oT
tic size, 1 gt
ilurian is therefore most appropriately styled the Mollus-
Palzeozoic Trilobites belong to the lower tribe of Crusta-
Crustacea rank low among Articulates. Moreover, Crus-
(and the Articulata in general) did not reach their fullest
velopment until the Human Era. ier :
The Radiata were well represented in the Silurian periods;
at, while inferior to the Mollusca as a sub-kingdom, only corals
£2
SS é Hy ky
308 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
and crinoids, the lower fixed or ae — with rare ex
ceptions, occur in the Silurian or Molluscan Age ,
e Articulata ha Radiata thus Bepin early, but with only r
the faves forms in each, and neither is a ia class in any —
Vie nied the history, then, zodlogically, the ages are—the Age
, of Mollusks, of Fishes, of Reptiles, of Mammals, of Man.
& We ai satite change the point of view to the Vegetable King-
dom. The ages thence indicated would be three:—
I. The Age of Alger, or marine planis, obieeepitaiae to the
Silurian and Devonia 2
Il. The Age of opi or flowerless trees, that i ~y the Tie :
dodendra, Sigillarie, and Calamites,—corresponding to the Coal
which may still be retained, as i r from certain that the
Sigillarizs and Calamites are most Beaty related to the Conifere, =
The Age of Angiosperms, or our common trees, like ae
Oak, Elm, &c., beginning with the Tertiary. 2
The terval between the second and third of these apes i8 is |
ssehepieks conte by Conifer, the Pine tribe, and Cycadew, the - -
true Gymnosperm’, species of which were abundant in the ‘Coal
Period, and have continued common ever since. The :
in the iaslecey. of dais flowers and their naked seeds, are next
akin to the Acrogens or flowerles trees. Although in the main:
a flowerless vegetation, for the few supposed remains of flowers
observed abroad have been recently referred to ee a
leaf-buds, it appears probable from the observations of Dr. %
berry, that there were some true flowers over the Ohio prairie
ciety monocotyledonous, and related to the Lily tribe.
of P. or monocotyledonous trees have -—
in tha coal fields of this country.
Period and Permian, between the Age of Fishes and me: of
Reptiles,—a space in time zovlogically occupied by the apna +
ping of these two ages
* This Age, would perhaps be more correctly styled, the A Coni,
Conifers, a higher group than Acrogens, were Sty ear! si of uf all land pla
the upper pt ae ell as Carbonifero ages in ¢
be ref eos pe
Calantes ton yee related to the Conifers
s in some cases ar to tare approached ae ; reptiles
rome 0 Fhe genera of Aacptie the Conifers. An interesting sao of
be e coal formation of Ohio, has recently been mentioned by Dr. J. Wyman,
eeting Amer, Assoc. at Abate)
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 309
The order then reads, the Age of ae gree oc coreg 2 of
AcRroGENS or Coal plants , of Reprines, of Mam
_ The limits of these ages are as dgane as sbi Epa of:
h
aused universal grief to science, 4 that the Reptilian
as an age of diminished life, between the two extremes in time,
Palseozoic and Mammalian Ages. But, in fact, two grand
divisions of animals, the Molluscan and Reptilian, at this time
reach their climax and begin their decline, and this is the ear-
instance of the highest culmination of a grand eae
and formall announced in this country, in the Geologie Report
_ of Messrs. Foster and beech although previously admitted
- inan aniletinite w by most geologists.
is q _ It embraces all I the lowest oa whe to the Silurian, for much
é lowest granite cannot be exclu
: e actual absence of animal life in tthe so-called Azoic Age
_ + in this country is rendered highly probable, as Foster and Whit-
3 ey atone by the fact that many of the rocks are slates and
nm ‘ie em fossiliferous Silurian ‘tock, and yet have no
and fa fide ad to a great extent crystallized « on a vast scale,
a the first Silurian Ia layers were deposited. A grand revolu-
tion is here indicated, pie ie the closing event of the early
oe Bc history of the globe.t
: as DW the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District, by J. W. Foster
: Whitney, U.S, Geologits Part TL The Iron Regions together with Gen-
cutive Document, "No. 4, Special Session, March, 1851.
printed, March 13,1851. 406 pp. 8vo, with many plates, and a large
I map and section.
Whitney o it. pp. 7, 26, 182,) that at Chippewa Isla
Menomonee rer sear 04°88 82 W) the Potsdam ignors ; sandst fovog 2 mp up-
d Azoic elaton.. At Whi Raps lower down See a sam
the of ce quartz Near le (not far from
46° 85’ N, 87° 33° ot sinhilan contact of the nearly Sbeneotal Potsdam
uartz rock is
‘Austkh Gf thin tinent. wan well studied and defined at a still earlier date
distinguished geologist of Canada, Sir William E, Logan. In his Annual
310 J.D. Dana on American Geowgical History.
r these ea remarks on the divisions of Geological —
time, I now propose to take up ‘the characteristic features. and ae
succession of events in American Geology. a
Report for 1846, oat and that for 1848, he points out several e sample of the AJ
Silurian covering the contorted Azoic, and his subsequent surveys have o>."
facts of this kind. The occur = of the lakes Huron and Superior, and along — iy
and to the north of the St. Lawr Movers in the vicinity of the lakes just men-
tioned, he foun oe the Azoic divided i to two unconformable groups, a lower, since oy
called by him the Laur 5 n upper, the Huronian; the former consisting
granite, sy ‘ st reat rock, hypersthene rock, | es
ete.; the latter of diorite, slates, white and — sandstones, conglomerates, lime-
stones, the whole much intersected by trap and metalliferous ve ng native
copper, cic. and having a thickness in some paces, pol “3 9000 to 12000 feet.
vedying:! the Azoic, a8
observed by him in the vicinity of the St. Lawrence pes of Lake Champlain,
are oh in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of eke, for 1852,
pp. 2
In the progress of the Geological Survey of New York, commencing in 1836, the
fact that the crystalline rocks of Northern New ex were older than the Silurian
i braid shown, but good sections illustrating the superpositions of the two were
rath set meeting of the American Association at Cincinnati in 1851, when Foster
and Whitney first prese thre Siaise Siieskonn Prof. Mather stated that he
had traced the continuation of the system nearly to the sources of the
CAE: pee
Assoc. Rep. 1851,) indicating the inferiority in position of these come Hom ene
as had been 1 by Messrs. Foster and Whitney from the investigations
Mersch under t! eir m; and Dr. Sp. ann described related rocks in
* The evidence with respect to the existence of cary in the Azoic Age, though
by no means positive, is stronger than here gaa d.—In the first pista these oe
er ages were |
, ‘efe;
noted that — has been observed growing mong
in waters having a temperature of 180° F, pe heneittes in seen a case of sim
on ida one of the Philippines, where the tem mperature was 160° a
much beyond the limit, which the eggs of animals can endure and survive. ;
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 311
In the outset we are struck with the comparative simplicity
of the North American continent, both in form and structure.
Th outline, it is a triangle, the simplest of siasthenandital figures ;
in surfiuce, it is only a vast plain lying Sv lice two mountain
ranges, one on either border, the Appalachian from Labrador to
; _ Alabama on the east, the Rocky Mountains on eas west; and on
its contour it has water, east, west, north, and south.
Observe too that its border heights are proportioned to the
size of the oceans. A lofty chain borders the one
_ the narrow gi while the small Arctic ple is ‘fheed by no
pro ir mountain range.
— is principle, ‘that the highest mountains of the continents
face the largest oceans, is of wide ap perce aa ar unlocks many
mysteries in physical eeography. South ca lies between
: Am
pg ~ tinent i is there pinched up almost to a narrow mountain ridge.
ers from North America in having a large. expanse of
ocean, the Atlantic, on the north; and, correspondingly, it has its
og northern mountain ridges. The world is full of such illustra-
- - Mons, _but I pass them by.
tions and extent of the oceans, they seeming to point to the con-
3 clusion, that the cp neat of the oceanic basins had ricci
| © ie continental fea tures; and that farther, both results were
= _-Volved i cing the earth’s gradual refrigeration, and consequent “a.
ex aatinmicn has thus the simplicity of a single evolved result.
— = on the contrary, is a wor. d of complexities, It is but
one corner of the Oriental continent,—whic includes Europe,
i ocean bounds it on the a
a etiasy.
wide contrast accounts for the greater completeness or
-of American revolutions, the more abrupt limits of
h Rha Combine researches of a large number of investi-
The names of MACLURE, SILLIMAN, Eaton, lead off the
312 J.D. Dana on American Geological History.
roll; Hrrencock, the Professors RoGErs, the well-known GEOL-
Ists of the New York SurvEY, also, OWEN, PERCIVAL,
a
fe)
w!A
pe)
fats
Qu
ct
°
=a
a
cae)
as
oO
o
B
B
B:
=
—
9
ee
[or
(2)
ro
oO
5
oe
Se
S
cc
le}
™m
s
wa
°
ar)
7
B
e
oO
Ac
%
ae
ner
bet ee
g
=]
|
er
oO
=r)
=)
Ee.
ee
Ss,
a
=a
ta]
tae)
2,
6
=!
Se
(2)
A
eg
* As I have already remarked, many names are abo i ich have con-
tributed largely to our knowle eof Aserioan Geolo ee oe
While Dr. Morton was the disti
by Romer in Texas, Tuomey in South Carolina, H.D. Rogers and others in Ne P
Jersey, J. W. Barter with reference to microscopic species, and J. Lewy for Verte
_ Remains.
e Tertiary has been investigated by Lyetz along both the eastern and southern —
border; also in different localities by Ft Borer M. Treats ES. ham +8. H
L Lza, H. D. an ocERSs, Romer, J. D. Dana and W. P. Brake
are :—Hat , VANUXEM, ons, Conran, De Verneure of Paris, t ne Pro
fessors Rogers, Messrs, Wuurwxy and Foster, D. D. Owsy, C.'T, Jacksox, D. HoveHto’
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 318
This key soon opened to us a knowledge of New En land
geology, mainly through the labors of Prof. Hall, and also o
essor H. D. Rogers, following up the survey of President Hiteh-
eek and now the so-called a imary r sone anite, gneiss
Let us now briefly review sis succession ine epochs in American
geological histor
= The Azoic Age ended, as was observed, in a period of exten-
__ Sive metamorphic action and disturbance,—in other words, in a
vast revolution. At its close, some parts of the continent were
deft as dry land, which appear to have remained so, as a general
x thing, i In after times ; for no subsequent strata cover them. Such
es ao ee
= -~ yap G. Troost — args J. — ee of Sig ennai J. GREENE, te Locks,
HITTLESEY, [. A. L G. C. Swattow, J. G. Norwoon, B, F. Suuarp, be-
ss = he invetigatrs in i Cade. Sir W. E. Logan, J. Meslay J. W.. Dawson,
UNT an
ers,
othe Carboniferou oe was early studied in many of its details by Dr.
Hucprern. But successive strata of the whole formation from the Devoeinn
through ¢ the Stbearboniforoue and Coal Measures, were first systematized by the
Professors Rogers, th ough without yet marking out in any of their publications the
isi 1 measur mselves an char: 0
____ ¥esearches on the coal beds have been ie by R. C. Tartor J. P. Ls
Pennsylvania, J. Hatt, D. D. Owen, and others in the states of the Miispp val valley,
: J.8. Newzerry on the fossil plants and fishes of the Ohio coal measures
and C. T. Jacksoy on the coal beds of Rhode Island; Dawson, Lyrtt, Jackson, pat ;
on the New Brunswick Scotia beds ; a Wraan, Lavy, Lye, an
ro
bier i and continues still his bavedtieti The examinations of Dz
yan besitos defining the limits of our De rennin also contributed much on
, la red ‘sandstone and tra regions of the Triassic or Jurassic period, w
in the Connecticut valley aul in pr? Beng oh parallel with the Atlantic ber
der to the south, and also to the north be Scotia, have been specially
investi by D. Otmsrep, E. Hrroncocr, J. G. Perctvat, Professors Rocrrs, E. Ex-
ACKS
Q
i
zt
:
my
é
%
I
BS
?
-Deanz, W. C.
Lza, and Prof, Owen of London; i th the hails by the Profimects Rocers,
» Siarn€ CHCOOEK, JF.
_ * The labors of Sir W. E. Locan have thrown great reat Pe Sia New England
and ar iving | —— ad our i dge hitherto unattained. He
esa
Fe
a3
"
wait
peu
a 4
BB
EF
a
8
z
d
¥ crystallin ng, a in 4
are there uncr a a and fostieoa and thus is putting the question o
rkshire li has thus
me erent as at as in New Sis: : the pet Pa mica slate o agate Ver-
% o be Upper Silurian in ae it being uncrystalline lim —— .
panes aly etamorphic and still containing distinct traces of
abe i ns oa and Lake Memphremagog, and farther south
= ~e more crystalline as Il as calcareous | and losing all indications of fossils.
S. Hunt of + other facts to bear on this subject.
eleomp SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. im OV 1896.
40
314 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
are a region in N ys New York, others about and beyond
e Superior, and a large territory stretching from Labrador
westward, as recognized by Messrs. Foster and W hitney and Prof,
Hall, and the e geologists of Canada.*
The Silurian or Molluscan Age next opens. The lowest rock
sandstone, one of the most widely spread rocks of the conti-
nent, seiaiind from New England and Canada south and west,
an ‘reaching beyond. the Mississippi,—how far is not known.
And this first leaf in the record of life is like a title page to the
whole volume, long afterwards completed; for the nature of the
story is here declared in a few comprehensive enunciations.
1. The rock, from its thin, even layers, and very great extent,
shows the wide action of the ocean in distributing and working
over the sands of which it was made; and the ocean ever after-
ward vical ba most active agenc sae makin
2. Moreover, ripple-marks, sch as are made o resent
seledcredal or in ' shallow waters, abound in the oka! both t wee
the east and west, and there are other evidences also of modera
depths, and of emerged land.t They all announce the oad
fact, that even then, in that early day, when life first began to
light up the globe, the continent had its existence,—not in
in the Veron of life which appear in the earliest
thes ot ahs Pes al rock, three of the four great branches of
the Animal Kingdom are represented,—Mollusks, Trilobites
among antl tes, id Corals and Crinoids among Radiates,—
a sufficient representation of life for a. title- ‘page. The New
* The Azoic lands, above the ocean at this time, re d by Messrs, Foster and
scperies in the Report referred to, were that of th a he Nene n Lake
i hight the
souri iron-m
other islands. Mr. White has more re shown that the bene dae of g
pre-Siluri
On the Geslogieat i map of northern North America, Isbister in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Societ for Tee ae: hee << Azxoic is
shown to extend in a narrow band northwestward from Canada to he Arctic sea
between Hudson’s Bay and the Winnipeg | f lakes.
+ Other marks of shallow water alluded to e obli
lamination characterising many subordinate a Wayeia fh Agile an ae peg 3
changing currents, like the ebb and flow of t tides, or variations in tidal or other cur-
rents, or the occasional action of storm wayes. This se ht gon Kew ell as
ds
a @ ga a Ke bundantly in the Potsdam san hight oe:
ions’s Geol. Rep. p. 104, 180); in Canada - a ve
elsewhere) ; so th of Lak 3 ee oe + Reports 1861 “5 Pt
e Superior (Foster and Wi t it. p. 118); in the
gas Mini (Owen, Survey of Ws sconsin, Pid yt yo th ‘ Pebnsylvan ia ia and
irginia (Professors H. D. and Rogers),
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 315
York beds of this rock had afforded only a few mollusks; but
the investigations of Owen and others have added the re remaining
tribes; and this diversity of forms is confirmed by Barrande in
Bohemian researches.
Among the genera, while the most of them were ancient forms
that afterwards hecame extinct, and through succeeding ages
shell had ‘the anomalous chemical constitution of bones, se
mainly phosphate of lime; — afterwards he found in a modern
Lingula
the very same com: sition,—a further announcement
ee acy between the saree and latest events in geolog-
r
This “ars sandstone,—called in New York the Potsdam
sandston the associated Calciferous sand-rock, mar
the First. Period of the Molluscan Age,—the Porsp ait PERIOD,
as it may be called.t
ext fSiowed the TreNTON PERIoD,—a period of limestones,
(the Trenton limestone among them,) equal to the earlier beds
‘In geographical limits, and far more abundant in life, for some
beds are literally she lls and corals packed dow \ in bulk;
the species were new to the period, the former life having passed
OM a Geological Ree and
the Northery part of Iowa, Washin ington Boni acament Tis p. 14, res gales:
sg in his quarto Report on Wisconsin, f 1852. fossils he mentions
ong neon a d th
_ Prof. W f this Jour p? 296), announced the
ascovery oft the rilobite ® Papani Harlani of Green SE cama! of pearines )
in slates ten miles south of Bost on, Mass., a species s found s rrande in his proto-
wo or cree fossiliferous rock of Bohemia,—thus addin
ime " ounces also (Meeting
large Cya aitiophy ilo’ aay in
The exact age of the rock however
1 Through th the ¢ i it is now well known that the “ Lower
Limesto of the ned and a a sandstone with which it — corres-
“pond to the “erent sandrock of New York.
c
:
:
4
:
5
i
316 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
with this deposit the Upper Silurian began.
The U Siluri
reef, far exceeding in extent, if not in brilliancy, any modern
coral sea; for such was a portion, at least, of the Upper HEL-
DERBERG Period.
Again there was a general devastation, leaving not a trace of
the former life in the wide seas; and where were coral reefs, eS-
pecially in the more eastern portion of the continental seas,
sandstones and shales accumulated for thousands of feet in thick-
ness, with rarely a thin layer of limestone. Thus passed the
HAMILTON, CHEMUNG and CaTsKILL Periods, of the Devonian
age. The life of these regions, which in some epochs was eX
* Prof. Hall, in connection with J. D. Whitney, has recently made the important
observation, that the Galena or lead-bearing limestone, which is the upper
rent is ' fro: Ni i
se
sin by thick strata of Hudson River shales, giving a rolongation to these shales
Whi n ese
before unsuspected. He had previously, with Mr.
around the north side of Lake Rutod an
thence along Green Bay to Lake Winnebago, These shales are however partly re-
placed by limestone in Ohio, ete.
ee ee ee
an exuberant coral _
d Lake Michigan to Pointe aux Baies, and ag
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 317
ceedingly profuse, was three or four times destroyed and re-
newed:—not renewed by a re-creation of the same species, but
by others; and although mostly like the earlier in genera, yet
each having characteristic marks of the period to which it ag
longed. And while these Devonian Periods were passing, the
first land plants appeared, foretellers of the age of verdure,
next to follow.
Then come vast beds of conglomerate, a natural opening of a
: h :
and coal-beds being formed in Pennsylvania, and fourteen thou-
feet in Nova Pootis. ,
Thave passed on in rapid review, in order to draw attention
to the series or succession of changes, instead of details+ So
brief an outline may lead a mind not familiar with the subject
to regard the elapsed time as short; whercas to one who follows
out the various alternations and the whole order of events, the
dea of time immeasurable becomes almost oppressive.
paring Te Roger ocean We
arpa spapiees pa, Drei 1500 to 2000 feet.
} The names given to the subdivisions of the Paleozoic rocks are the same that
have been laid down by the New York Geologists, sig assiduous and successful
terms only in ying them to the jods and epochs :
formed, so ant be oe thereby the ieterical bearing of geological facts.
318 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
Before continuing the review, I will mention some conclusions
which are here suggested.
I. In the first m8 through the periods of the Silurian and
Devonian, at twelve distinct epochs at least, the seas over this
times occurre
If Omnipo otent Power had pet. sane’ to making monads for
ier
required again and again the sowing of monads, a. there would
failure of crops after all; for these extermina-
tions gene to occur through all geological time into the Mam-
malian
U. enn, I have observed that the continent of North
America has never been the deep ocean’s bed, but a region of
4 Seta and Epochs thus made out are as follows—excluding minor subdivisions
ub-epochs, and not a to give the parallel subdivisions
for th the West. On this subject, the volumes and papers by Prof, Hall especially
should be consulted.
ge (Sta AGE.
1. Lower Siluria
1. Porspam cates wy Potsdam —— 2nd. Calciferous sandrock.
poch. Chazy limestone; 2nd. Birdseye; 8d. Black
. Hupson Pzriop.—Ist Epoch. Utica Shale; 2nd. Comet River Shale. ~.
son River Shale and Blue limestone of Ohio in parts of the west.)
2. Upper Silurian.
1, Nracara Penton, vir Epoch, Oneida Conglomerate; 2nd. Medina Sandstone ;
« Clinton a ; 4th. Niagara Grou
2. Ononpaca Pzrtov.—Ist Epoch. Galt me 2nd. Onondaga Salt Group.
3. Lowzr ata DERBERG Penrop.—Limestones. (Statement of epochs here omitted).
Il. DEVON — AGE.
1, Ontskany Pertop.—Ist Epoch. Oris andstone ; Cauda-galli Grit.
ee Urrer Hetpseserc Prriop.—lst Epece, Sictene bate ‘ond. Upper Helder-
Tg group.
3. Hawiuron Pertop.—1st Epoch. Marcellus Shales; 2nd. Hamilton group; 3d.
Gunnar Slate.
4. rome Psriop.—1st Epoch. P eras Chem 0
i Partop.—Catskill Red San es and Shales, (No. LX. of Rogers)
83 & ‘jekneee =:
1, SuBCARBONIFEROUS dene Epoch, eee es and Shales
(with some coal — d. Sandstones, Shales and Cacbeatwons limestone.
Nos. X. and XI. of Rogers
2. Carponirerous Prriop.—lst sage @ — Grit ; 2nd. Lower Coal Meas-
wane 83d. Upper Coal Measures. L and XIIL. of R ogers.
3. PrwtaN Pens ERIOD.— Probably Be resented in Eastern North America, except
by the events of the Appalachian eval eo
_Tegion, now the great
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 319
comparatively shallow seas, and at times emerging land; and
was marked out in its great outlines even in the earliest Silurian.
The same view is urged by De Verneuil, and appears now to be
the prevailing opinion among American geologists. The depth
. or may have been measured by the thousand feet, but not
miles.
TIL. During the first half of the lower Silurian era, the whole
east and west were alike in being covered with the sea. In the
first or Potsdam Period, the continent was just beneath or at the
surface. In the next or Trenton Period, the depth was greater,
iving purer waters for abundant marine life. Afterwards, the
ast and West were in general widely diverse in their forma-
tions; limestones, as Mr. Hall and the Professors Rogers have re-
marked, were generally in progress over the West, that is, the
Wissiec pi Valley, beyond the Appalach-
ians, while sandstones and dials were as ge
a great reef or sand-bank, partly hemming in a vast continental
lagoon, where corals, encrinites and mollusks grew in profusion,
thus aoe more or less perfectly the already existing At-
lantic from the interior waters.
IV. The oscillations or changes of level over the continent,
through the Upper Silurian sid Devonian, had some reference
to this border region of the continent: the formations approach
or recede from it, and sometimes pass it, according to the limits
of the oscillations eastward or westward. Along the course of
the border itself there were deep subsidences in slow progress,
48 1s shown by the thickness of the beds. It would require
much detail to illustrate these points, and I leave them with this
gar
Onondaga Periods (the first two of the Upper Silurian) thin out
i hee ch the Hudson River. Mr.
the disturbances began as early, at least, as the close of
wer Silurian, mentioning, too, that there is actually a
of conformity at Gaspé between the beds of the Upper
320 J.D. Dana on American Geological History.
and Lower Silurian,—another proof of the violence that closed
the Lower Silurian era.*
of an agency of inconceivable power, pressing forward from
' * This Eastern border of the American continent, then in process of formation
over the present Appalachian region from Labrador and Canada southwestward, la:
deeper to the south than to the north. In 0 ;
York, there was Jand out of water, forming its: northern limit. From: thence. it
its natural course would haye been southwest over the Appalachian region, W in
the s and shales were extensively accumulated; and therefore its aid i
making these deposits can scarcely be doubted. ; 6
_ F It is urged b Prof. Hall and others that the Carboniferous beds in the west lie
unconformably on the beds below. But the disturbance indicated was not one
bold flexures or uplifts, yo
MiP. nh
Sate : t
. See
anada and the Azoic of Ni orthern New.
a,
J. D. Dana on American Geological History, 321
rock above the Carboniferous.
% What better evidence could we have than the history of the
oscillations of the surface from the earliest Silurian to the close
__ of the Carboniferous Age, and the final cresting of the series in
eats,
%
8
this Appalachian revolution, that the great features of the con-
verved in N
ing that, although the course of the great Azoic lands was partly
east and west, the same system of Giycikicton that characterized
ing ages was then to some extent apparent, :
_ The first event in the records after the Appalachian revolution,
Was the gathering up of the sands and rolled fragments of the
¢
i b sw
AN ak ats
Pah
F
rocks and schists along the Atlantic border into
beds; not over the whole surface, but in certain valleys, which
lie parallel with the Appalachian chain, and which were evi-
i of | fing of that revolution. The beds are
the red sandstones and shales, which stretch on for one hundred
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1956. ‘
41 :
*
322 J.D. Dana on American Geological History.
and twenty miles in the Connecticut valley: and similar strata
occur in Southeastern New York, in New Jersey, Virginia, North
Carolina and Nova Scotia. These long valleys are believed to
ave been estuaries, or else river courses.
The period of these deposits is regarded as the earlier Juras-
to a depth equal to this thickness, as the accumulation went on,
since the layers were formed successively at or near the surface.
Is it not plain, then, that the oscillations, so active in the Ap-
b g
d not the tension below of the bending rocks finally
cause ruptures? Even so: and the molten rock of the earth's
neath and the overlying san ° :
tains, ridges, = thickly studding the Connecticut Valley,
standing in es along the Hudson, and diversifying the
* This Red Sandstone, after being known for a while under the name of “ Old Red
Sandstone,” was long called the “New Red Sandstone,” it being shown to be above
was made by Mr. J. H. Redfield in
valley published in 1836, who made it Jur ‘ i
N. Y,, vol. iv.) Mr. W. 0. Redfield added to the facts bearing on this conclusion
through discoveries made in New Jersey and Virginia. Prof. W. B
from. the eoal plants of the Richmond beds, the same age for those beds, while ad-
. . ds
; : belts in
in the belt in Pennsylvania near Phenixville, and one plant (Lycopodites Willi
nis) common to Virginia and Massachusetts, he suggested that all the beds were
probably Jurassic Am. J. Sci. [2], xi 3). . E. Hitchcock, Jr. detected re-
cently a fossil plant (Olathropteris rectiusculus, Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 92), near the
. . ch = 4 ; ;
nm in t
the existence of the Lower Jurassic at that place, and also renders it probable
as far as now under
sandstone, while it may cover part of the Triassic, is mainly Jurassic.
some
-
a)
re nameless, until, some countless ages afterwards, President
Hitchcock tracked them out, found evidence that they were no
unworthy representatives of the feathered tribe, and gave them
and their reptile associates befitting appellations.
uch vast regions of eruptions could not have been without
effusions of hot water and steam, and copious hot springs. An
may not these heated waters and vapors, rising through the
crystalline rocks below, have brought up the copper ores, that
are now distributed, in some places, through the sandstone?
The same cause, too, may have given the prevalent red color to
the rock, and produced changes in the adjoining granite.
er the era of these rocks, there is no other American rec-
ord during the European Jurassic Period.
_ In the next or Cretaceous Period, the seas once more abound
in animal life. The position of the cretaceous beds around the
Atlantic border shows that the continent then stood above the
valley, which, from the Silurian, had generally been the region
occupied to a
poly new Fauna, excepting, ee to Professor Tuomey,
doubt, The continent was now more elevated than in the pre-
drawn from the region of Iowa and Wisconsin, so as not to
teach beyond the limits of Tennessee.t
. * Mr. J. Deane of Greenfield was also an early explorer of these tracks, and
1s now engaged in publishing on the subject, illustrating his memoir with plates of
great beauty and perfection.
, t The recent investigations of F. B. Meek and Dr. J. V. Hayden, have shown (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phi a em 111, 1856,) that while there is much
ib the Nebraska region d there is also it the head waters of the
: uri some marine t ry. region investi between the 46th and
1 parallels of North latitude and the 100th and 108th degrees of longitude : but
it is not ascertained whether the body of salt water thus ir ted an
ted area, or an arm fr e Me e shells, (species of Ostrea, Corbula,
' and Cerithion) do not satisfactorily fix the age of the tertiary, but iy nia
authors say, that it may be the older Eocene, They occur in the same
324 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
Two or three times in the course of the Tertiary Period, the
life of the seas was exterminated, sO that the fossils of the later
ters
close of the first Tertiary epoch was a time of subsidence; but
the oscillation or change of level was slight, and by the e nd of
e Tertiary, the continent on the east stood within a few feet of
its present elevation, while the Gulf of Mexico was reduced
nearly to its present limits.
T have thus brought this ca sketch to the close of the Ter-
iary, having omitted much of great interest, in order to direct
attention to the one grand fact,—that the continent from the
Potsdam sandstone, or before, to the Upper Tertiary, was one in
its progress,—a single consecutive series of events according to a
common law. It is seen, that the great system of oscillations,
due to force pressing or acting from the southeast, which reache
its climax in the rise of the Appalachians, then nope a
decline. We mark these oscillations still producing grea
in the Jurassic Period along the whole eastern border pon Nova
Scotia to the Carolinas. Less effect appears in the Cretaceous
eriod; and gradually they almost die out as the Tertiary closes,
tobving g ihe = ssippi Valley and the eastern shores near
eve
sequent upon this system of aivileedeany Moreover,
observed, this system was some way connecte ected with the ealasive
position of the continent and the oceanic
We need yet more definite Sippel is of the Pacific _—. 7
of North America to complete this subject. It is
with the fact that the highest mountains are there, that ser
noes have been there in action; and also that, in -_ Tertiary
Period, elevations of one to t two thousand feet’ took lace; and seas
that immediately before the Tertiary, a still gi on che of
the Rocky Mountains across from east to west o
system of changes between the Rocky Mountains eer ‘tha » Pacifi
nm on a grander scale than on the Atlantic border, and
also from a different direction,—and this last is an element for
ghia fr pipes: shells, species of Melania, Physa, Paludina, and all
as inhabit fresh and brackish waters The ery op of the
Ait
the sea, as far as ponies knowledge goes, is quite limited.
* Naming the North American Tertiary Epochs from prominent localities, as in
the Palsozoic, they are :—1. The Oxaro’ con or Older ee ne ; 2. The VIcKsPURG,
or Newer Eocene ; 3. The Yorxtown, or Peat and Miocene
a
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 325
whose influence on the general features we cannot yet make full
owance.
Through all this time, central British America appears to have
ken little part in the operations; and what changes there were,
except it may be, in the Arctic regions, conformed to the system
prevailing farther south, for the rocks of the Jurassic Age, like
the Connecticut River sandstone, are found as far north as Prince
Edward's Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
But the Tertiary Period does not close the history of the con-
tinent. There is another long Period the Post-tertiary,—the
_ period of the Drift, of the Mastodon and Elephant, of the lake
and river terraces, of the marine beds on Lake Champlain and
the St. Lawrence,—all anterior to the Human Era.
From this time there is a fundamental change in the course of
operations. The oscillations are from the north, and no longer
ons.
_ The upper terrace of the lakes and rivers, and also the marine
beds four hundred feet above the level of Lake Champlain, and
five hundred above the St. Lawrence, which have been called
uaurentian deposits, are marks of a northern depression, as no
one denies. ;
_ The subsequent elevation to the present level again, by stages
marked in the lower river terraces, was also northern, affecting
the region before depressed. want
_ The south felt but slightly these oscillations.
There are thus the following epochs in the Post-tertiary :—the
Drift Epoch ; the Laurentian Hpoch, an epoch of depression; the
Lerrace Epoch, an epoch of elevation; three in number, unless the
Drift and Laurentian Epochs are one and the same. -
As this particular pein is one of much interest in American
fe gy, 1 will briefly review some of the facts connected with
The drift was one of the most stupendous events in geological
In some way, by a cause as wide as the continent,—
Ro rock strata, from the first to the last, do we find imbedded
326 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
Much doubt must remain about the origin of the drift, until
the courses of the stones and scratches about mountain ridges
and valleys shall have been exactly ascertained. The general
course from the north is admitted; but the special facts proving
or disproving a degree of dependence on the configuration of the
land have not yet been sufficiently studied.
One theory, the most prevalent, supposes a deep submergence
over New England and the North and West, even to a depth of
four or five thousand feet, and conceives of icebergs as floating
along the blocks of stone, and at bottom scratching the rocks.
Another, that of the Professors Rogers, objects to such a sub-
mergence, and attributes the result to an incursion of the ocean
from the north, in consequence of an earthquake movement
beneath the Arctic Seas,
The idea of a submergence is objected to on the ground that
the sea has left no proof of its presence by fossils, sea-shore ter-
races or beaches.
v7 ee
farther south; and yet no such sea-shore marks now exist to
shore recor
Very many have replied in the affirmative; and one able ad-
vocate of this view, who sees no difficulty in the total absence
of sea-shore terraces or fossils at all levels above the Laurentian
beds, finds in the succeeding epoch sea-shore accumulations in
all the terraces of our rivers. Why this wonderful contrast?
What withheld the waves from acting like waves in the former
case, and gave unbounded license in the latter?
‘This much, then, seems plain, that the evidence although neg
ative, 1s very much like positive proof that the land was not
beneath the sea to the extent the explanation of the drift phe-
nomena would require, .
There are other objections to this view of submergence. If
North America were submerged from the southern boundary-line
much warmer climate for the continent than now; if only half-
way, then there is another east-and-west shore line to be trac
out, before the fact of the submergence can be admitted. Again,
heres Us
Pere
J, D. Dana on American Geological History. 327
we know how the ice, while a glacier, or along a shore of cliffs,
(for all bergs are believed to have once been glaciers,) may re-
1
uget’s
Sound north, of Southern South America from Chiloe south, of
elevation was in the period of the ciara He has not been pre-
But as they are proof o
the earlier, we have reason for referring the greater part of the
, elevation to that Drift era, and for believing that the excavation
| of these fiord valleys was then in progress. Both fiords and drift
However this be, there is other evidence in the cold of the :
iod, of some extraordinary cause of cold. The drift m
328 J.D. Dana on American Geological History.
have been produced over Europe, partly at least, by a diversion
of the Gulf Stream from its present position. He seems in his
paper to attribute too much effect to the Gulf Stream, and too
little to the prevailing currents of the atmosphere. But, setting
this aside, it is unfortunate for the hypothesis, that there is no
reason to suppose that America was not then as much in the wa
of such a diversion as now. ‘The small changes of level whic
the Tertiary and Post-tertiary beds of the Gulf have undergone,
prove that the gate of Darien was early closed, and has since
continued closed. America, as facts show, has not been sub-
merged since the Tertiary to receive the stream over its surface.
If it had been, it would have given other limits to her own drift
phenomena; for it is an important fact that these limits in
i urope show the very same difference in the eli-
: : aa
On the question of the drift, we therefore seem to be forced
to conclude, whatever the difficulties we may encounter from the
conclusion, that the continent was not submerged, and therefore
that icebergs could not have been the main drift agents: that
riod was a cold or glacial epoch, and the increase of cold was
probably produced: by an increase in the extent and elevation of
northern lands. Further than this, in the explanation of the
drift, known facts hardly warrant our going. oh
_ Tf, then, the Drift epoch was a period of elevation, it must
have been followed by a deep submergence to bring about the
depression of the continent already alluded to, when the ocean
stood four hundred feet deep in Lake Champlain, and a whale—
for his bones have been found by the Rev. Z. Thompson of Bur-
lington—was actually stranded on its shores; and when the u
terrace of the rivers was the lower river flat of the valleys. ‘Thi
submergence, judging from the elevated sea-beaches and terraces,
the great alluvial plain constituting the upper terrace, 80 1-
mensely beyond the rE saad of the present streams? Perhaps,
as has been suggested for the other continent, and by Agassiz
* Moreover, the Gulf Stream i known to deep as to be
turned around to the northward * the isduinrin! doves ct tin oom ne
: t the age
given the stream a chance over the land: and even then, if the West Indian Islands
“a not also deeply sunk in the ocean, a large part of the current would still have
|
Sian a ull
=
MS rs
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 329
this, from the melting snows of the declining glacier epoch.
The frequent absence of fine stratification, so common in th
material of this upper terrace, has often been attributed to a
glacier origin.
According to this view, the events of the Post-terti eri
in this country make ingle consecutive series, dependent
mainly on polar or high-latitude oscillations :—an elevation for
the first or Glacial Epoch ; a depression for the second or Lauren-
tian Epoch ; a moderate elevation again, to the present height,
for the third or Terrace Epoch.
The same system may, I believe, be detected in Europe; but,
like all the geology of that continent, it is complicated by many
conflicting results'and local exceptions; while North Ameri
as I have said, is like a single unfolding flower in its system of
evolutions.
There is the grandeur of nature in the simplicity to which
we thus reduce the historical progress of this continent. The
7 arts of the continents. |
n deducing these conclusions, I have only stated in order the
ts as developed by our geologists. Were there time for a
More minute survey of details, the results would stand forth in
bolder characters,
The sublimity of these continental movements is greatly en-
hanced when we extend our vision beyond this continent to
(Other parts of the world. It can be no fortunate coincidence,
that has produced the parallelism between the an
will not wander, although the field of study
é.
___ In thus tracing out the fact, that there has been a plan or sys-
Bo of development in the history of this planet, do we separate
2 SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66,—NOV., 1896.
2
330 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
the Infinite Creator from his works? Far from it: no more
than in tracing the history of a plant. We but study the
method in which Boundless Wisdom has chosen to act in crea-
tion. For we cannot conceive that to act without plan or order
is either a mark of divinity or wisdom. Assuredly it is far from
the method of the God of the universe, who has filled all nature
with harmonies; and who has exhibited his will and exalte
purpose as much in the formation of a continent, to all its de-
tails, as in the ordered evolution of a human being. And if
man, from studying physical nature, begins to see only a Deity
of physical attributes, of mere power and mathematics, he has
but to look within at the combination of the affections with in-
tellect, and observe the latter reaching its highest exaltation
when the former are supreme, to discover proofs that the highest
glory of the Creator consists in the infinitude of his love.
My plan, laid out in view of the limited time of a single ad-
dress, has led me to pass in silence many points that seem to
demand attention or criticism; and also to leave unnoticed the
s .
There are some subjects, however, which bear on general
geology, that should pass in brief review.
I. The rock ions i i
periods.
The revolution closing the Azoic Age, the jirst we dissoes
the
_An epoch of some disturbance between the Lower and Upper
Silurian is recognized on both continents. Yet it was less com-
plete in the destruction of life on Europe than here, more species
there surviving the catastrophe; and in this country there was
but little displacement of the rocks.
‘The Silurian and the Devonian Ages each closed in America
with no greater revolutions than those minor movements which
divided the subordinate periods in those ages. Prof. Hall ob-
serves that they blend with one another, and the latter also
with the Carboniferous, and that there is no proof of contem-
oraneous catastrophes giving them like limits here and 1
eae idee A
were far less general than with us, and occurred along at the
beginning and end of the Permian Period. ot
a
|
+ _* This catastro:
_ Plishment ; yet it was disastrous to the living tribes over the whole sphere,
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. ‘ 331
_ From this epoch to the close of the Cretaceous, there were no
contemporaneous revolutions, as far as we can discover. But
the Cretaceous Period terminates in an epoch of catastrophe
which was the most universal on record, all foreign Oretaceous
ste having been exterminated, and all American, with a few
oubtful exceptions.* This third general revolution was the
prelude to the Mammalian Age. But there is no time to do this
subject justice, and I pass on,—merely adding, on account of its
interest to those who would understand the first chapter of
Genesis, that there is no evidence whatever in Geology, that the
after its completion, passed through a chaos and a six
days’ creation at the epoch immediately preceding man, as Buck-
land, in the younger days of the science, suggested, on Biblical,
not on Geological, ground. No one pretends that there is a fact
or hint in Geology to sustain such an idea: on the contrary, it 1s
utterly opposed to it.
Il. The question of the existence of a distinct Cambrian sys-
tem is decided adversely by the American records. The Mol-
in all their grand divisions appear in the subdivisions of
the Lower as well as Upper Silurian, and the whole is equally
and alike the Molluscan or Silurian Age. The term Cambrian,
therefore, if used for fossiliferous strata, must be made subordin-
ate to Silurian. :
The Zuconic system of Emmons has been supposed by its au-
thor to have a place inferior to the Cambrian of Sedgwick, or
else on a level with it, But the investigations of Hall, Mather,
and Rogers, and more lately of Logan and Hunt, have shown
that the Taconic slates belong with the upper part of the Lower
Silurian, being, in fact, the Hudson River shales, far from the
bottom of the scale. ; ss
TIL The American rocks throw much light on the origin of
coal. Professor Henry D. Rogers, in an able paper on the
been ages in accom-
phe may not have been violent ; it may have fe
332 | J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
a continent now sunk in the ocean. No facts prove that such a
continent has ever existed, and the whole system of progress, as
I have explained, is opposed to it. Moreover, gravel and sands
are never drifted away from sea-shores, except by the very
largest of rivers, like the Amazon ; and with these, only part of
the lightest or finest detritus is carried far awa v4 for much the
larger part is returned to the coast through tidal action, dea
has a propelling movement shoreward, where there are soun
ings. The existence of an Amazon on any such Atlantic con-
tinent an Silurian, Devonian, or ae times, is too wi
all.
‘Paral el with this fact, we find that in South America, as Dr.
Lund observes, where, in the last age before Man, there were
the giant Megatherium and Gl Pan , and other related Eden-
, there are now the small Sloth Armadillos, and Ant-
eaters.
So, also, on the Oriental continent, the gigantic Lion, Tiger,
Hyena, and Elephant, and other monster quadrupeds, have now
their bea inferior representatives.
In New Holland, too, o waa of Marsupials, there are Mar-
supials still, but of less magnitude,
2, This American onto has contributed to science 4
knowledge of some of the earliest traces of Re ple ae mio
of the Pennsylvania coal formation, elaribat by Mr. Kin
Mr. Lea, and others from the Nova Scotia coal-fields, ‘Secret
by Messrs. Dawson and Lyell.
It has afforded the earliest traces of birds thus far deciphered
in geological etary, ,—the colossal and smaller waders, whose
tracks cover the clayey layers and sandstone of the Jurassi¢
rocks in the Connecticut valley. The earliest Cetacea yet known
are from the American Cretaceous beds, as described by
Leidy. And among the large Mammals which had possession
of the renewed world after the Cretaceous life had been swept
away, the largest, as far as has been ascertained, lived on n this
continent. The Paleotheria of the Paris Basin, described by
Cuvier, were but half the size of the allied Titanotheria of Ne-
J. D. Dana on American Geological History. 333
. But here our boasting ceases, for, as Agassiz has shown, the
present Fauna of America is more analogous to the later Ter-
iary of Kurope than to the existing species of that continent.
In the Paleozoic Ages, to the close of the Coal Period, the
American continent was as brilliant and perhaps as profuse in its
hfe as any other part of the world. It was a period, indeed,
when the globe was in an important sense a unit, not individu-
alized in its climates or its distribution of life, and only partially
in its seas. But from this time the contrast is most striking.
The whole number of known American species of animals of
the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Periods
is about two thousand; while in Britain and Europe, a territo
The supremacy of the great Oriental continent 1s, therefore,
most signally apparent.
The Ete still greater with Australia and New Zealand,
Whose past and present Fauna and Flora have been well said by
_ Agassiz and Owen to represent the Jurassic Period,—the pres-
ent era affording Trigonias, Terebratul, Cestraciont Fishes, and
the Araucarian Conifers, all Jurassic types, besides Kangaroos
and Moas, Among Mammals, as is well known, the Marsupials,
the lowest of all in the class, are its typical species.
334 J. D. Dana on American Geological History.
fessor Guyot observes farther, that America, ever free, was the
appointed land for this freedom and union,—of which its o
plains, and oneness of structure, were a fit emblem; and that,
although long without signs of progress or hope in its future,
is land is to be the centre of hope and light to the world.
In view of all these arrangements, man may well feel exalted.
He is the last of the grand series. At his approach, the fierce
tribes of the earth drew back, and the race dwindled to one-
fourth its bulk and ferocity,—the huge Mastodons, Lions, and
' Hyenas yielding place to other species, better fit to be his at-
tendants, and more in harmony with the new creation. Partak-
ing of the Divine image, all nature pays him tribute; the unt
verse is his field of study; an eternity his future. Surely it is a
high eminence on which he stands.
Yet he is only one of the series; one individuality in the vast
system. How vain the philosophy which makes the creature
the God of nature, or nature its own author! Infinitely beyond
man, infinitely beyond all created things, is that Being with
m this system, and the combined systems of immensity,
were as one purpose of His will.* ;
* This Address, exclusive of the notes, is cited from the Proceedings of the Amer.
Assoc. IXth Meeting at Providence, R. I. It was delivered by the author on retir-
ing from the duties of President,
J. D, Dana on the Plan of Development, &c. 335
Art. XXV.—On the Plan of Development in the Geological His-
tory of North America, with a map; by James D. Dana.
On other occasions, I have discussed at some length, the out-
line and_ surface features of the continents, the parallel courses
aracter-
istics of our globe.* I propose at this time to point out the rela-
tions between the operations of this principle or agency and the
special geological history of the North American continent.
To render this application of the subject intelligible, it is ne-
cessary to review briefly the fundamental facts just alluded to.
For this purpose, I would direct attention to a Mercator’s Chart
of the World, (sce plate) on which the whole is open to exami-
nation—such a chart being a minature representation of the facts
themselves, and the order observed among its parts, the syllables
which spell out the principles.
In the first place, note the two great oceans, the Alantic and
the Pacific—both widening south, and coalescing in a vast ring
of ocean around the south pole, while narrowing north and uni-
ting ina small arctic sea. The Indian Ocean isa third north
and south ocean: but it reaches north only a little ways beyond
the equator.
As the Atlantic is less than half the breadth of the Pacific, so
Sented by the line M M),
trend of the Atlantic ( meter,
Corresponds with the general trend of the Pacific islands; for
these islands have a nearly parallel course all through the ocean,
the New Hebrides, Kingsmills, Samoan, Tahitian, Marquesas
and Sandwich islands, lying in approximately parallel lines.t
: eol. . Ex-
ao ok is vol. te
Red. 756 pp. 4to, 1849, pp. 11, 4 d
Meeting, 1 d page 30 volume.
+ I may here add, what I have elsewhere explained at length, that the trends of
a hil ing a rrespondence of directi to “0%
the i her the A e Pacifi
it the Paumo merpctah ame ie ar atill farther east, in Easter Island and Gomez
is thence continued on a west-northwest course, by the Society Islands, and the Her-
vey Islands more south; thence by the Samoan and Fakaafo groups; thence more
northwesterly by the Vaitupu snd Kingemills, to the Radack and Ralick groups,
2 ears
a aa, .
‘ Cae
336 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development
In the body of New Zealand, however, and some other parts,
the angen nrg rend of Kastern America is represented.
the relation between the borders of the conti-
= as to soa and structure, and the extent of the oceans?
. Look first to North ‘America. Observe the ae ae
lofty Rocky Mountains, mostly a double line of heights, facing
the broad Pacific, besides a second towering nani the Cascade
and Sierra Nevada, nearer the sea. May we not say, As the
height of the Appalachians to the size of the a so ts the height
ee ree the ence sclot ?
—— America, there is the same Set Soe low Brazil-
ountains on the Atlantic rie | the lofty Andes on the
Pacific, and the latter exceeding the Rocky Mountains as much
as the South Pacific exceeds the N ae Pacific; so that we may
make another proportion, As the height of the Rocky Mountains to
the North Pacific, so is the height and boldness of the Andes to the
South Pacific.
In the Orient, the mountains towards the Atlantic, or those of
which run nearly north-northwest; making thus a great swee curve, of several
strands, over 6000 miles lo The Sandwich or Newall cing cr the oe side
of the equator (2000 miles in 1 whole length) is the opposite or northern s1 side of the
same system, slightly curving with the convexi iy sarge yn e the Marque-
sas and the e Fanning or Washington ioe 3 lie m tn a axis of this great Cen
oe
‘ y and west in the Admiralty Islands, north
Guinea. The line of New Caledonia, another curving strand in the system,
pe n New Caledonia and Australia accord with the system. The post
tion of these lines concentric around Australia co correspond with the idea that the
Sar fans extent of this continent, has had some influence in determining the
a,
two systems, the Central Pacific and Australasian, though so agg ee
‘yet ¢ bound together in one. For while the great central range ra main co
Kingsmills and Radack groups, it —_ off at the Kingsmills, a svestern
branch, the Carolines, which is actually parallel with the jes of the Australasian
beg ah late of the New —— which is continued in the Frie’ ; Islands
north, corre! northwestern, the two ha a mutual depen
Se nati in many groups 0 of islands an well as in the features f the
Lig ee
eed Ewer
in the Geological History of North America. 337
ay near the equator is 20,000 feet. In Australia, the Austra-
lian Alps, as they are called, are on the east fronting the Pacific,
here the wider of the bordering oceans.
Thus all over the world, the highest mountains stand fronting
the largest and deepest oceans; and the “rule of three” state-
ment of the fact scarcely conveys a wrong impression.
2. We observe further that the coasts are in general so turned
as to face the widest range of ocean. e Appalachians with
the neighboring coast do not face northeast towards the Euro-
pean continent, but southeast, towards the great opening of the
Atlantic between America and Africa. So on the west side of
orth America the Pacific coast faces, not towards Asia, but
southwest, where the broadest range of ocean is before it.
3. Consider now a little more closely the structure of these
ocean borders. How is it as to the effects of heat or volcanic
action ?
In North America, on the side of the smail ocean, the Atlantic,
we find metamorphic rocks, some trap dykes, and a few tepid
Beings. On the side of the great ocean, the Pacific, all these
p :
of the globe, while basaltic floods have buried out of sight
almost all other rocks over a considerable part of the country.
Mount St. Helens, Mount Hood, Mount Shasta, and a dozen
others, twelve to eighteen thousand feet high, make a majestic
le of fire mountains not yet wholly extinct. May we not then
Say, As the size of the Atlantic to the action of heat on the Atlantic
— is the size of the Pacific to the action of heat on the Pacific
In South America, there is a direct repetition of the same facts
on a still grander scale: the Brazilian side, with metamorphic
ks and no voleanoes; the Pacific side, with voleanic heights
of 20,000 feet and upward.
ern Ocean and not simply on the narrow Atlantic; the volea-
ee are at the junction of the two lines, n or near the Bight of
lafra,
_4. Again, these effects of heat are confined mostly to the re-
gion between the crest of the border mountains and the ocean,
ards
Tador to Georgia. is si :
diminishes oes westward. So on the Pacific side: the great
SECOND saa we XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856.
-
338 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development
volcanoes are not on the east or landward side of the crest, for
there is not a volcano on that side, but on the seaward side, and
not very far from the ocean. Thus we may almost say, The
nearer the water, the hotter the fire. ;
5, Again, the mountains that make the borders, consist as is
ments are most numerous towards the ocean, and are parallel
nearly to the ocean. Hence again, The nearer the water, the vaster
the plications of the rocks.
6. Over the interior of North America, there are not only no
volcanoes, but there never have been any since the earlier Silu-
rian, as shown by the absence of their remains among the strata;
and this is so, notwithstanding the abundance of salt water over
the regions in those ancient times. Over the interior of Asia
there are no volcanoes, as is well known, except the three or four
in the Thian-Chan Mountains. The great volcanic belt of the
Orient stands out a short distance from the water-line of Asia,
in the Japan range of islands, thus directly edging the oceanic
basin; for the intervening region of shallow waters 1s properly
a submerged part of the continent.
7. In contrast with this non-volcanic character of the interior
ayas,
28,000 feet high, is itic; and surely we might have ed
for some granitic eas gi the central islands of the oceans:
but there are none.
t the same time, as others have remarked, the transverse
seas which divide the Northern and Southern continents, the East
Indies, the Mediteranean-and West Indies, are characterized by
volcanoes.
If then, the typical form of a continent is a trough or basin,
the oceanic borders being raised into mountains; if these borders
are so turned as to face the widest range of ocean; if the height
of these border mountains and the extent of igneous action along
them is directly proportioned to the size of the oceans,—the Pa-
cific, accordingly, being girt with great volcanoes and lofty moun
ns, while the narrow Atlantic is bounded by smaller heights
and but few voleanoes; if, moreover, volcanoes characterize the
islands o ‘mid-ocean and not the interior of the continents: What
is the legitimate inference?
Most plainly, that the extent and positions of the oceanic de-
pressions haye some way determined, in a great degree, the fear
— they are subordinate, and with whi
in the Geological History of North America. 339
tures of the land ; that the same cause which originated the one,
impressed peculiarities on the other; that the two had a parallel
ward, the continents upward; in other words, that they have
g
in my address before this Association last year—evidence derived
from the extent and nature of the Potsdam sandstone, the earli-
est of the Silurian strata, showing that this ee rock was laid
down over a large part of North America by a sea which just
bathed its surface—thus proving that the continent was
made, and indicating in part its water level.
- The relation between the extent of the oceans and the border
features of the continents, which has been pointed out, 1s not
simply a relation of fact, but of effect and dynamics, pomting
should have in general a common system of structure. :
A unity of cause there must be for the great Reenonntie a
eg Such is nature in all her p unasoonne gate za ee
means by which we penetrate to ee .
x cause is once roabied and fully apprehended, the details have
0
of their beauty fois the rising trunk and os branches to
C
ony. i
-neiple of development through which
What then is the a structure ‘os features have been
340 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development
The organizing agencies in the sphere are—
1. Chemical combination and crystallization.
2. Heat, in vaporization, fusion, and expansion, with the cor-
relate force of contraction which has been in increasing action
from the time the globe began to be a cooling globe. .
. The external physical agencies, preéminently water and
the atmosphere, chiseling and moulding the surface.
4. The superadded agency of life.
ear or wrinkle the crust, as the same cause, contraction, WriN-
les a drying apple. The large rind is more than sufficient for
the contracted sphere; and the drawing downward of some parts
in the Geological History of North America. 341
ocean, the higher the mountains on its borders, the deeper the
Oe g
___ fractures and displacements there, and the vaster the outflow of
In a section of the North American continent, drawn toa scale
twelve feet long, one-ninth of an inch will stand for an altitude of
un
10,000 feet; one-sixteenth of an inch for the White Mountains,
and about three-tenths for the Himalayas.
eastward the power was comparatively moderate, gently ea
w
ciency of the great organizing forces. te
_, Glance AGW at ‘Amuciti geological history from this point hs
t of the nine ah AS
the first in th logical series. Such an area (see Chart,
extends Seith, Rorthetn New York and Canada, north-west to
the Arctic Ocean, lying between the line of small lakes (Slave,
Winnipeg, &e.) and Hudson Bay. East and west, it dips under
+. atriki I have
- * The contrast with Europe in this respect is striking, and accounts, as
Said, (Address, é:c,, p. 811,) for the greater simplicity of North American Geology.
342 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development
— strata (SS;) but it is itself free from superincumbent
beds, and therefore, even in the Silurian age, it must have been
above the ocean. And ever since, although subject, like the
rest of the world, to great oscillations, it has apparently held its
place with wonderful stability, for it is now, as probably then,
not far above the ocean’s level.
This area is central to the continent; and, what is of promi-
nent interest, it lies parallel to the Roe ky Mountains and the
acific bo rder, thus proving that the greater force came from
~ that direction in Azoic times, as well as when the Rocky Moun-
tains were raised. Thus this first land, the germ or nucleus of
the future continent, bears in itself evidence with respect to the
direction and stren ngth of the forces at work. The force coming
from the Atlantic
seretching through Canada to reior, in ie dip and strike of
the New York Azoic rocks, in the direction of the channel of the
| anor ce and the northwest coast of Lake Superior, and prob-
aby also in the triangular form of Hudson’s Bay. Against this
a area, as a stand-point, the uplifting agency operated, acting
om the two directions, the Atlantic and the Pacific; and the
evolution of the continent took place through the consequent
vibrations of the crust, and the additions to this area thereby
resulting; the ocean in the meantime pursuing its appoint
fanctions in the plan of development, by wearing exposed rocks
and cae the shores and ith
or clay, or else growing shells, corals and crinoids, an
storing up the material of strata and burying the life of succes-
sive €
These long secular vibrations, movements by the age rather
than day, dipping the surface and rai sing it again in many an
ere successions, were absolutely essential to the progress.
Had the continent been stable, there could have been no history,
no recorded events of changing life and alternating deposits:
gravel pepe ate under the me of the waves; then in mie
haps, rising from the waves, ad death upon its sea
in one universal desolation ; then, sabi slowly in the waters
’ *
;
|
in the Geological History of North America. 343
as well as to the south and southeast.
hus the enlargement went on to the southward, each period
Making some addition to the main land, as each year gives a
layer of wood to the tree. Not that this addition was free from
Ag
*
344 J.D. Dana on the Plan of Development
oscillations, causing submergences, for these continued long to
occur; but the gain, on the whole, was a gain—a progress; and
the moving ages made the accession a sure and permanent gain
as the continent became more stable.
II. But in the statement that the growth of the continent was
to the south, southeast, and southwest, we assert only the most
general truth respecting it. The continent has its special features
as much as any being of organic growth, and the elimination of
these features is to be traced to the same system of forces. e
Appalachian range on the east, the Rocky Mountains and the
subordinate chains on the west, the lower lands and lakes of
the interior, all in systematic relation, are the more marked of
these features; and the vast river systems, with the broad allu-
vial flats and terraced plains, the wide spread drift, the denuded
heights and channeled slopes and lowlands, are subordinate pe-
culiarities of the face of ‘he continent.
ry
the future of the continent, its low centre and high borders, was
sempre We can hardly doubt that the region of the
te a ot
after the appearance of the Azoic nucleus, there were two prom-
inent lines of development; one along the Appalachian region,
the other along the Rocky Mountain region—one, therefore, pat
allel with either ocean. ndward, beyond each of these devel-
oping areas, there was a great trough or channel of deeper ocean
waters, separating either from the Azoic area.
* Address dc.—See this volume, page 319.
in the Geological History of North America. 345
The Azoic, as has been indicated, has something of a V shape,
(or \v), with Hudson Bay between its arms. This succeeding
step of progress is the partial development of a larger V outside
of and parallel to the Azoic nucleus. The channels alluded to
lie between the two V’s. The bar of the outer V on the left is of
great breadth and made up of several broad parallel bands or
ranges of elevations; that on the right is quite narrow compar-
atively, yet also etched in several parallel lines.
exican Gulf is all that remains of the larger of these
channels. Its waters once stretched to the Arctic Sea, and were
line of freshwater lakes along its former course; and the Gulf
reached no higher than the headwaters of the Missouri, Later
largest lake, Lake Superior, is at the junction of the two lines.
Such was the law of growth. The molecular forces beneath
the continent, from the progressive cooling there going on, were
not idle, and must have modified the results. ‘But the main
action causing the lifting and sinking of the crust and the final
oe to the land, proceeded from the directions of the oceans.
rocks were deposited, it
elevated the continental border at least two or three thousand
feet—ten times beyond what happened on the Atlantic side.t
to the cause, there can be none as to the actu-
c. The elevation of
relative extent and
exe
the
th i engge
the southeast ; and the several parallel ranges on the Pacific side, parallel to the
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV+y 1886.
44
346 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development
But look further, and consider that the great lines of elevation
on the Pacific side are parallel nearly to the islands of the ocean;
that these islands are like a long train stretching off from Asia
to the east-southeast; that New Hebrides, New Caledonia in the
southwest, with the foot of the New Zealand boot and north-
western Australia, conform to the general parallelism; and it wi ]
then be comprehended that we have been considering not simply
a continental system of progress, but one involving the whole
globe. It appears also from the history of the coral islands of
the Pacific, that while the Tertiary and Post-tertiary elevations
were going. forward on the Pacific border of North America, 2
slow and gradual subsidence was in progress over a parallel region
across the middle of the ocean. ‘he axis line of the Pacific is
not only the main trend of its lands, but is also nearly the course
of the ie subsidence which is indicated by the history of the
nds.
coral isla:
Ill. I have said that these two systems of forces—the south-
east and southwest—continued to act through the Tertiary period,
working out the continent, and bringing it nearly to its adult ex-
tent. At the meeting of this Association at Providence I pointed
out the fact that at the close of the Tertiary there was a change in
the movement; that during the following period, the Post-tertiary,
there were high-latitude oscillations ; aed I endeavored to show,
that there was first an elevation of the continent over the nort
for the first or glacial epoch; then a subsidence (as shown by the
seashore deposits on Lake Champlain, and the highest terrace of
es and rivers) during a second or Laurentian epoch; au
finally; an elevation to its present height, for the third or Terrace
epoch. ether the elevation for the Drift epoch, be admitted
or not, all agree that the oscillation attending it was a northern
Oy ge These several changes thus affected mainly the
atitudes north of the middle of the temperate zone, or were but
slightly felt to the south of this. Itis a remarkable fact that
the coasts of the Arctic regions, which have now been rather
widely ao have not presented any Jurassic, Cretaceous OF
Tertiary deposits, and there is, therefore, no evidence of their
ocean, are proofs of similar lateral action there, but from the southwest. Then the
dominance of these two trends in the uplifts over the whole continent in its oldest
and newest regions and rocks, are like the warp and woof of a fabric, determined
by the organizing forces themselves of the structure
* Amer. Jour. Sci. vol. xly, (1843) 131, and [2], iii, 396, (1847).
Ine consequence of these facts and principles may be here alluded to.—If the
position of the Atlantic and Pacific has determined the main directions of the or-
forces time, and if, owing to the direction, as the facts show,
vations having the same strike or trend have been formed in successive ge 2
cal ages, it is evident that the elevation theory of mountains, sustained by Bie 0°
: must be received with much hesitation. One dial-plate for the world,
such as he has deduced mainly from European geology, is a splendid hypothesis ;
but it may not mark time for America or the other continents,
in the Geological History of North America. 347
having been in those eras under water. Such beds may here-
after be detected; but the great fact will still remain, that they
are there of limited extent, if not wholly absent. As far as
known, there is no Tertiary on the coasts north of Cape Cod.
All development or growth there seems to have ceased, or.nearly
so, with the Paleozoic era or the close of the Carboniferous age.
But there are Post-tertiary deposits in the Arctic regions in
many places, situated ee A of feet above the sea, containin,
shells of existing Arctic species. This alone, independent of
other evidence, would prove a change in the conditions of geo-
logical progress after the Tertiary period. The necessa
ence is, then, that as long as the southwest and southeast forces
were in active play, and the extremities of the continent were
thereby in process of growth, there was little change going on
in the far north. But when the continent was nearly finished,
its extremities grown, and the stability consequent upon adult
age acquired, then, through a series of oscillations, a course of
development was carried on in the more northern regions, giving
a final completion to the continent—an action, which, as I have
elsewhere explained, involved the higher latitudes about the
T-
east, and the southwest, according to the principle explained, was
proportioned approximately to the sizes of the oceans, the Arctic,
the i the Pacific; that the greater forces from the
plains were spread out in terraces over the 1
along the ceded that thus a large part of the brighter fea-
* Address, etc., this volume, p- 327.
348 J. D. Dana on the Plan of Development, &c.
tures of the globe were educed. The mountains of the earth at
last stood at their full altitude, having gained some thousands
of feet since the Tertiary ; and aed true offspring of the moun-
ns, taking their size from the size of the mountain ranges,
were sent on renovatin ng missions dot the breadth of the conti-
nents. Indeed, the upper terraces of the rivers show that dur-
hh is yet unexplained, unless Seen as in have sug-
to the declining snows of a glacier epoch. In their
strength, they at athe channeled the hills, and wrought out pit
of the existing sublimity of mountain architecture. There
the elimination of beauty and of immediate utility in wae
stroke of those later waters, in striking contrast with the earlier
operations of rock-making and mountain-lifting ; for those very
conditions, those special surface details, were developed, that
were most essential to the pastoral and agricultural pursuits with
which man was to commence his own development, while that
yeah was impressed on the earth that should tend to raise
soul above its surface.
earth, has a parallel in organic growth; for the extremities are
finished and adult size attained before the head and inner being
are fully antec: The analogy is fanciful; yet it is too obvi-
ous a parallelism to be left unsaid on that account.*
* T have alluded on a former an analogy between ad nagar of the
earth ad ‘that A a gem. To this, there i is racking thn fanciful ; iss oe
w, as is now known, at the basis of all develo t, which i vatrikingt
even in the earth’s physical progress. The law, mew palm simply y
this :—-Unity evolving multiplicity of parts through successive » eeividualizations
proceeding py the more fundamental onward. ieee
in igneous fusion, had no more distinction of parts than a
wards, the continents, while still ce: pies the waters, began to — ‘Then,
as the seas deepened, the first ‘dey lank appeared, low, barren, and ox. Under
slow intestine movements and the po action of the eheeloping vwaters the
dry land expanded, strata formed, and as bo sp ent on,
prance rose, each in its appoint ted hse Finally in th et stage of f the pe develop
ment, the Alps and Pyrenees arp eer peigois ms Sew thet majestic dimensio
and the continents were finished out to their rder
, as to the history of fresh eatenaThe first wities were all salt, and the
ocean , the waters sweeping around the sphere in an almost un unbroken tide.
Fresh vets left their mark onl ly. in a rain-dro a ression, Then the rising lands
sateimenned | to mark out the great seas, and the chon msi continents were at times
spread w wee water cree into — rills w ing from the slo
bier
d re rivers, till at last the She
also were of bene ential an continents were oe active with the
at work channeling 8, spreading out plains, opening
of Pa ge and distributing ting good ev every where.
Again, the first clima tropical. But when mountains and streamé
were ; ately their pee a divendty of climate, (essential to the full strength of
eee
Lithium does possess so
_ Is said to have led to the discovery of the me
J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium. 349
Thus, then, the continent was completed. Contraction was
the power, under Divine direction, which led to the oscillations
of the crust, the varied successions in the strata, and the exuvia-
tions of the earth’s life, era after era. Acting from the Atlantic
and Pacific directions, it caused the southern prolongation of the
growing land from the icy North to the tropics, while it rai
mountains on the borders, and helped to spread the interior with
plains, varied slopes, and lakes. And, finally, through its action
er the north, the surface received its last touches, fitting it
for a new age—the Age of Mind.
Arr. XX VI.—Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Lathium ;
by J. W. Maxuet, Ph.D.; Professor of Chemistry, Univ. of
Alabama.
an atomic weignies fact which
Tate experiments made for the purpose of fixing the number
with precision.
_ The following historical notice of what has been already done
in this direction I have taken from a valuable little work by
the latter,) was gradually evolved, until winter had settled about the poles as well
. “ earth’s loftier unite leaving a limited zone,—and that with
ariations,—to tual summer. : Sage ae
_ The organic Sauciat the earth, from its primal simplicity to the final diversity,
is well known to exemplify in many ways the same great princi le. So) a pee
E eatures i vidualized :—first,
m ‘ei i 2 myriad details in
which its special characteristics, its magnificent perfection, and its great purpose
consist.
.
g 1 OU) 5°
.) ‘597 grm. of LiO,SO, appeared to consist of “406 erm.
of SO, and “191 grm. of LiO
3
chorid of silver.’ Eee
Soon after, Vauquelint analyzed anhydrous sulphate of lithia,
and found’480 erm. of LiO, SO, to yield 875 grm. of BaO, SO,.
C. G. Gmelin§ found a little later that 481 grm. of LiO, SO,,
precipitated by acetate of baryta, gave ‘953 grm. of BaO,SO,;
and that the acetate of lithia produced in this experiment left on
ignition ‘316 grm. of carbonate. ;
| also analyzed sulphate of lithia, and stated its
Stromeyer
composition as
dithig, 2. - - - 80°819
Sulphuric acid, - : 69°181
onate of ammonia or of soda, washing and igniting the pre-
cipitate. A weighed quantity of this carbonate was then brought
* Historisch-Kritisch Overzigt van de bepaling der Aiquivalent-gewigten van
twee en twintig metalen door A. C. Oudemans, Jr.— Leiden 1853.
Afh. i Kemi, Fysik och Mi ie, vi i
de Chim. et de Phys. [2], x, 82. . viii, 189.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. [2], vil, 287. §
Stromeyer, Untersuchungen i. 435. Schweig. Journ.
“| Schweig. Jour. liv, 234. Berz. Jahresb. ix. 93.
** Pogg. Ann. xy, 480. Berz. Jahresb. x, 96.
e vi. Schweig. Journ. xxii, 93-100. Ann.
Pogg. Ann. viii, 189 2
Gilbert’s Ann. lix, 238.
xxxiii. 373.
y
x
3
:
J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium. 351
in contact with muriatic acid in a gas cylinder filled with mer-
eury, and the carbonic acid evolved was measured. It was
found in one experiment =60°98, and in another 61-00 per cent
of the carbonate of lithia. Hermann also dissolved this carbon-
ate in sulphuric acid, evaporated to crystallization, and dried the
crystals of sulphate of lithia over a spirit-lamp. 100 parts of
the dry salt gave an amount of sulphate of baryta correspond-
ing to 74 parts of sulphuric acid.
In 1831 Berzelius* repeated the experiments of Hermann,
and with the following results. 4:4545 grm. of fused carbonate
of lithia dissolved in sulphuric acid gave 6653 grm. of sulphate
of lithia; and 1°874 grm. of this anhydrous sulphate gave 3°9985
grm. of sulphate of baryta. ‘
In 1889 Hagent+ reéxamined with accuracy some of the min-
erals containing lithia, and discovered that this alkali occurred
in them, not pure, as it had been previously supposed, but ac-
companied by soda; and as in the preparation of lithia salts for
were necessarily quite erroneous; and that the results of Ber-
zelius and Hermann alone deserved any confidence, the salts
analyzed by them having been prepared from precipitated car-
bonate of lithia.
Hagen himself found that 1:002 grm. of pure sulphate of
lithia in crystals left on being strongly heated ‘852 grm. of the
anhydrous sulphate, and being redissolved and precipitated with
a salt of baryta gave 1°8195 grm. of sulphate of baryta.
_ The above are the results of the experiments which have been
made up to the present time. I have not kis alon with each
the equivalent number deduced by the analyst himself, but have
preferred to make the calculation in each case, using the most
recently determined equivalents for the other substances involved
° ~ several processes, and I here present the results in tabu-
ar form—.
' Poss. Ann, xvii, 379. Berz. Jahresb. x, 96.
. Ann. xlviii. 361, ee eat
t Rei that Trtecded his sulphate of lithia by dissolving the car-
prepares :
bonate in sulphuric acid; but this carbonate mary to have been obtained by precipi
ne. in tag ee :
orine,- = + > 44828 (Marignac).
- - 200°
Se a ae
- = « 184966 (Marignac).
Rican eines! wife Ores (varignse)
352 J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium.
Authority. Salt analyzed. At. Weight of Li.
Arfwedson Ist experiment,| Sulphate. 129°30
2nd "I g 135°22
- Sed Chlorid. 12671
Vauquelin, Sulphate. 11617
Gmelin Ist . s 135°54
" fod 6% Sulphate conv. into Carbonate. 108'22
Stromeyer, Sulphate. 122°74
Kralovanszky, me 13140
Hermann list “ Carbonate. 75°97
* Sulphate. 75:82
we: * . 75°67
Berzelius 1st “ Carbonate conv. into Sulphate. 80°89
« a Sulphate. 83-01
Hagen, = 82°41
Of th
Vauquelin, Gmelin, Stromeyer, and Kralovanszky are at once
ee salt of lithia, but a mixture of salts of lithia and soda.
sult has been generally taken of late years as the true one, and
with it that of Hagen agrees pretty well.
e have thus the atomic weight of Lithium as the result of
but two experiments, agreeing, it is true, fairly with each other,
but both made by the same process—the precipitation of SU
phate of lithia by a salt of baryta, washing, igniting, and weigh-
ing the BaO,SO, produced. And as it is well known that sul-
phate of baryta is washed with extreme difficulty, an excess of
of the sulphuric acid difficult; and as the quantity of sulphate
of lithia submitted to analysis in each of these experiments was
t small, and therefore the effect of any trifling error in the
estimation of the sulphuric acid would be more seriously felt—
it seemed that the equivalent of the metal might be redetermined
eS — > Aa eee
a
J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium. 358
with advantage, using a larger amount of a carefully prepared
salt, better adapted to the purpose than the sulphate, and requir-
ing the process of analysis to be varied. The salt chosen was
the chlorid of lithium, and I shall deseribe first the mode of its
preparation, and then the experiments which have been made
upon its composition.
Crystallized spodumene from the granite of Goshen (Mass.),
where the mineral occurs with blue tourmaline, beryl, and rose
mica, was finely pulverized, and 1 part mixed with 8 or 4 of
unslaked lime and about three-fourths of sal-ammoniac. The
mixture was heated in large crucibles to the highest temperature
of a good wind-furnace. ‘This is the process proposed by Prof.
J. L, Smith* for the analysis of silicates, except that he uses car-
bonate of lime instead of the caustic earth. The nearly fused
mass was pulverized, mixed with water, and treated with sul-
was boiled down to a moderate bulk, and ag Se with chlo-
nid of barium; the sulphate of baryta thrown down was was
solved, the solution boiled with a little pure milk of lime, and
filtered from magnesia. The lime in the filtrate was removed
by oxalate of ammonia, and the solution was evaporated to dry-
little water and again dried at a gentle heat, not over 100° C.
The dry mass was A into a glass-stoppered bottle, and
ured upon it—solution of the chlorid of lithium being aided
shaking the bottle from time to time. After a few hours the
Clear liquid was decanted, and the alcohol and ether were dis-
ed :
of purification was re eated a third time, nothing being now left
Whdissolved by the siaweknoiels The pure chlorid of lithium
* Amer, Jour. of Science, [2], xv, 284; xvi, 53.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66,—-NOV., 1856.
45
354 J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium.
sheet of platinum, and the fused mass broken up while warm,
and quickly enclosed in a bottle with a well ground stopper.
and absolute alcohol.
‘on in an uncovered vessel for some time the salt loses
a little chlorine, and takes up oxygen, so that when redissolved
in water it reacts alkaline to test-paper; but it was found that
this change could be completely svolmed by mixing a little pure
sal-ammoniac with the chlorid of lithium before evaporation to
ess, and fusing the dry mass in a covered crucible. The
heat obs must not be too great until the sal-ammoniac has
been driven off,—as in a first experiment, in which the quantity
of NH.Cl was considerable io the heat rapidly applied, the
ter part of the chlorid of lithium was velatilined and lost,
although the platinum crucible was covered and was not raised
to more than a low red heat.
= Having got then pure fused chlorid of lithium, it remained
to determine its composition or the per-centage of chlorine which
it contains. The salt is a deliquescent one, and it seemed doubt-
ful at first whether the absorption of moisture could be pre-
vented during weighing, but it was found that in a platinum
rege provided with a tightly fitted cover, the portion taken
remaining constant for more than five minutes in the hot
atmosphere of a summer day. The balance used was an exc’®
lent one of Berlin make, permitting of accurate weighing to the
one-tenth of a milligramme. Both it and the weights used were
subjected to a careful examination as to adjustment beforehand.
Three or four pieces of the fused chlorid of lithium were
fused cake, could be weighed with ease and certainty ; the wy
: as |
serve perfect correspondence between the two weighings. The
i beaker
crucible
was once more heated, cooled, and weighed; its weight Dow
being subtracted from the former weighing gave the amount of
LiCl used. The solution of LiCl was precipitated by @
J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium. 355
ble, upon the lid of which the filter was burned, the ashes we
moistened with nitric and then with hydrochloric acid. The li
was placed upon the crucible, the latter was heated until the
chlorid of silver began to fuse, and was then cooled over oil of
vitriol, and weighed.
_ Two experiments made by the above method gave the follow-
ing results :— ae
1.) 71885 grm. of LiCl gave 243086 grm. of Ag Cl.
(2.) 85947 id of LiCl gave 29°0621 grm. of AgCl.
ow
24-8086 : 7°1885 :: 1792-94 (equiv. of AgCl): x
x =530°21 (equiv. of LiCl). i ;
53021 —443-28 (equiv. of Cl)=86-98 = equiv. of Li and
29°0621 : 8:5947 3: 1792-94: x
een th
ius and Hagen is however considerable; and as it seemed possi-
ble that a little chlorid of sodium still retained in spite of the
purification by ether-aleohol might be the cause of this differ-
ence, I resolved to precipitate a solution of this supposed pure
chlorid of lithium with carbonate of ammonia, to redissolve the
carefully washed carbonate of lithia in hydrochloric acid, and,
8gain evaporating to dryness and fusing, to redetermine the
chlorine by a slightly different method—namely, that of analy-
sis by measure, as applied by Pelouze to the examination of the
atomic weights of sodium and barium. :
3°9942 germ. of the chlorid of lithium thus prepared from the
carbonate were dissolved in water. 10-1278 grm. of —
pure silver (the quantity necessary for the precipitation of the
sil-
ving the fluid clear. A solu-
tion of 1 grm. of pure silver in nitric acid had been prepered,
356 J. W. Mallet on the Atomic Weight of Lithium.
cautiously added to the fluid in the flask from a pipette furnished
with a small glass stop-cock and graduated to the one-fifth of a
silver. ;
Hence altogether 10°1278+0424=10:1702 grm. of silver had
n used.
10°1702 : 8°9942 :: 1849°66 feat of Ag): x
ek :
580-06—448-28 (equiv. of Cl)=86-78=equiv. of Li.
This number agrees sufficiently nearly with those derived
from the two former experiments to show that all three are de-
serving of confidence. If we take the mean of the three, we
shall have the number 86°89 for the equivalent of lithium ; and
this may, I believe, be fairly trusted as a closer approximation
to the truth than any of the numbers hitherto received, if we
take into account the greater scale upon which the analyses have
been made, and the difference in the methods pursued. For it
will be observed that the effect of the difficulty in determining
sulphate of baryta already mentioned (namely the adherence 0
a little of the salt used for precipitation so as to scarcely permit 1ts
removal by washing) will necessarily be to increase the appa
a of sulphuric acid in the sulphate of lithia an-
alyzed, and hence to give a lower equivalent for the alkali than
the true one. But this is the method by which the results hith-
erto most relied upon have been obtained.
The number 86°89 on the oxygen scale corresponds to 6:95
upon the hydrogen—thus making the equivalent of lithium
almost exactly an even multiple of that of Sepdropett, in accord-
ance with the analogy which seems to extend further and further
through the list of elements, as our knowledge of their atomie
weights becomes more exact.
And further, if we take the mean of thé equivalents of potas
sium and lithium, using 86°89 for the latter, we get—
488°86 (Marignac)
86°89
. 2)B75°75.
a. 987°87— almost exactly the equivalent
of sodium (287°44) as determined by Pelouze.
pressions of Zamites leaves, he considers as sufficient to 1
On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 357
Arr. XXVIL—On the Relations of the Fossil Fishes of the Sand-
stone of Connecticut and other Atlantic States to the Liassic and
Oolitic Periods; by W. C. REDFIELD.
Read before the American Association at Albany, Aug. 28, 1856.
reliable fossils for determining the age of the formation. The de-
terminative value of these fossils is perhaps enhanced, also, by
the small vertical range to which some of the species, and at least
one of the genera, are probably limited. But these fishes, although
numerous as well as characteristic, do not appear to have been
referred to, in any manner, by the above named writers.
Attention is invited, therefore, to a descriptive account of one
genus or group of these fishes, which was read to the New York
Lyceum of Natural History, in Dec. 1836, by Mr. John H. Red-
field, and is found in vol. iv of the “Annals” of that Society. It
Pro B
of Science, vol. xliii, p. 175, (1842). Also, in Proceedings of the Boston Society
of Natural History, vol. v, p. 14, (1854).—E. Hitchcock, Jr M.D. in Am. Jour. of
2 5 $ . 7 * ye
ogers first assigns to the coal rocks of Eastern Virginia a ap = near the
i isco
bottom of the Oolite formation of Europe; while from some fossils “ vered in
is T division o New Red Sandstone of Virginia,” he expects be able
confidently to ann e f be rresponding to the —
Rarope;'—doubtlees in the extensions of the Hew Jemey. Reuine “es ‘ewark
group. ropose the latter designation as a convenien e for thes rocks,
those of the | seer valley, with which they are thoroughly identified by ou"
es and other fossils, and I would include also, the contemporary sandstones 0
irginia and N. Carolina.
At a later period, (1854) Prof. Rogers recognizes the eral equivalency of the
eastern and riddle belts o Virginie a and the eastern or Fos River coal belt a ae
arolina: all of which in his view ought to be placed in the Ju series, no
arti above its base. i the more a rope the pecans “oad
i i i i j id coprolites im
osidonize, and Sprit, in Pennsylvania, with sauroi Weatiy, vi one ratio,
the disconnected tracts of this belt, in N. Carolina and Virginia and the pro'on
area of the soinlicd a Red Sandstone of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jer
Sey; and that they are of Jurassic date, but little anterior to the coal rocks 0
Eastern Vir
D. Roy i ndary to this grou
rof. H. D. Rogers (1889) proposed the name of middle secondary
(for convenience Se eae it from the Appalachian oe on a ge
, and from the green sand deposits on the © —Third Report on :
eris, discovered in the sandstone
near the middle of the series in
Kees
Mr. Hitchcock describes a new species of Clat.
of the Connecticut valley. This fossil fern,
Massachusetts, he refers to the li period.
358 On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group.
was founded upon a careful comparison of the genus Catopterus
with the fossil fishes of different formations in Kurope, as these
are portrayed in the great work of Prof. Agassiz, then recent]
received. Such portion of the description and observations
then made as relate directly to the geological age of the forma-
tion are here quoted. : :
Of the genus Cutopterus, species C. gracilis, he says:—“ Tail
forked, equilobed.. Scales extending a little upon the base of
the upper lobe.” And in regard to the equilobed tail, he adds
in a subjoined note:—‘ This indeed is not strictly the case. Its
structure, however, is analogous to that of the Semionotus
ranked by iz among the Homocerci, and differs most deci-
dedly from that of the true Heterocerci, where the scales, and
robably the a extend to the extreme point of the upper
obe. e adds :—
“Tn the arrangement of Agassiz, this fish would be compre-
hended in the order Ganoides, and family Lepidoides. Its equi-
lobed tail would assign it to the second division of the family,
the Homocerci, as he has termed them. From seven fusiform
genera now arranged in this division it is entirely excluded by
the posterior position of its dorsal. It may therefore be rank
between the genera Semionotus and Pholidophorus, being analo-
gous to both in the structure of the tail, and in its serrated fins,
and to the latter in the articulation of the rays. From the situ-
ation of the dorsal fin I have thought the name Catopterus to be
mga to this new genus.”—Annals Lyc. Nat. Hist. vol. iv,
pp. .
Nearly twenty years have elapsed since the promulgation of
these careful and apparently conclusive observations, which do
not appear to have been weakened or set aside by any subse-
quent researches. It is proper to state that the two analogous
genera above mentioned are found in the Oolitic series as wel! a8
in the Lias, and it is believed that few, if any of the kindred
hand, it appears to be admitted that the true heterocerques, of the Palaoniscus
ss 8 do not appear above the Trias, and I think they are not found above the Per-
It should be noted that Sir. P. Egerton has described a most singular fish from
the upper strata of the New Red, of a genus hitherto unknown, which has but little
uality in the structure of its caudal base. ‘This fish, the Dipteronotus cyp
Eg,, is very short and broad, with a double dorsal, and is altogether so unigue in its
character that its occurrence may be deemed to affect but little the chronological
peptic which are drawn from the varied structure of the numerous genera and
species of the Lepidoid family —See Geol. Jour. 1854, p. 869, with a figure.
*
On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 359
inferences with which Mr. R.’s paper in the Annals is concluded:
viz.
“Tt has of late years been generally admitted that the sand-
stone from which these fishes are derived is of much later date
than the old red sandstone, to which it was once referred, and
these remains confirm this belief. The Paleonisc:, of Europe
[true heterocerques] have never been found below the coal mea-
sures, while they extend upward to the copper slate of the zech- .
stein, or magnesian limestone. In the case before us, we find a
species of Paleoniscus accompanied by a fish, the structure of
whose tail approaches that of the Pholidophorus, and of other
shes never found below the lias. This fact would seem to im-
ply for this formation, even a higher situation in the series than
at which is now assigned it by geologists.”—Annals, &c., p. 4
e American Association of Geologists and Naturalists at
the meeting held in Albany in April, 1848, requested Mr. John
H. Redfield to prepare a report on the fossil fishes of the United
tates. His report was presented to the Association, at New
Haven, in May, 1845. It was withheld from publication by its
author, on account of the expected visit of Prof. Agassiz to thi
country, and with a view of commending the whole subject to
his examination.—In the review of the fishes of our new red
sandstone, so called, the report stated as follows:
“New Rep Sanpstong.—Under this term I include the ex-
tensive sandstone formation of the Connecticut river valley ; the
small and isolated basin on the Pomperaug river near Southbury,
Ct.; the New Jersey Sandstone, extending from the border of
the Hudson river, southwesterly, to the interior of Virginia ;
and, also, the formation known as the coal rocks of Eastern Vir-
ginia.—(Report, p. 4.)
“All of the fishes hitherto found in these rocks belong to the
order GaNnorp, and to the family Leprpom£.”—Report, p. 5.
nearly or quite to its extremity. The other division, the homo-
360 On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group.
lias or oolite.” Report, pp. 5-6... ;
‘‘— Only four species of the genus. Oatopterus are yet known;
three of which are found in the red sandstone of New England
and New Jersey and the fourth in the coal rocks of Eastern Vir-
ginia.”* Report,
contemplated arrangements for com leting a monograph of the
fishes of this formation in the Unites! States. J
I have thus shown the examinations and conclusions of Mr. J.
H. Redfield on these fishes, as first published in 1887, ane
found in his report to the American Association in 1845. 40
the first of these he points out the age of the containing
* Others have since been obtained.
On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 361
and within the same limits which now appear to result from all
the subsequent researches.
At the meeting of this Association held in Cincinnati in April,
1851, the present writer made a communication on the Post-Per”
mian character of the red sandstone rocks of Connecticut and
New Jersey as shown by their fossils. I then exhibited, to-
gether with two species of Voltzia, some specimens of the genus
topterus from these rocks, showing the homology of their cau-
dal structure with that of the Catopterus macrurus from the coal
rocks of Eastern Virginia. This was induced in part by the
fact that Sir Philip Egerton, in a paper of Sir Charles Lyell, in
the Journal of the Geological Society, had separated this Vir-
ginia species from its congeners in the New Jersey and Connec-
ticut rocks, on the ground that the former belonged to the homo-
cercal and the latter to the heterocercal divisions of Prof. Agassiz.*
Previous however to this publication of Sir Charles, repeated
and careful examinations, with Prof. Agassiz, of the numerous
specimens of Catopterus in my possession, collected from the
localities of the three different States, had appeared to establish
y their similarity in respect to the structure of the tail. Also
- Ce mal
so speak. I therefore reclaim the Dictyopyge of sir Philip Eger-
ton, founded on my species C. macrurus, as still belonging to the
instituted by Mr. Redfield for certain ies of heterocercal fish
ginia fish is stated to be homocercal, and this he my by the
* Sir Charles Lyell On the Structure and Probable Age of the Coal-Field of the
— River, Nae Hetchabsae, Virginia: Jour. of the Geol. Soc., vol. iii, 1847, pp,
5-278,
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1866.
46
362 On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group.
of the Virginia rocks.
In regard to the other fishes of New England and New Jer-
ab and impliedly in the descriptive portion of his paper.
+ is well seen, also, in his figure of the P. Jatus, attached to his
paper in the Annals. In my own notices of 1841, referred to
above, I suggested that their less heterocercal forms, and the pe-
ppterus.
The question to which of the divisions of Agassiz the Catop-
In regard to this point of distinction, sia T not quote the
; :
3
not, as the case may be, but that it is variable in amount, pas*
ing from extreme heterocercy to absolute homocercy by a sli ing-
scale so gradual, that it is (at all events in fossil examples) most
difficult to define a positive line of demarcation between the two
forms.”
_ As the terms have hitherto been used, such line of demarca-
tion, if it exist, appears best indicated at the division between
the palzeozoic and the mesozoic strata; and perhaps in lesser de-
gree, at the close of the triassic period.
In all our Chtopteri the scales of the caudal base terminate
near the middle rays of the upper lobe, “and not on the mpen
margin, as in a true heterocerque tail.”* Good figures by Vr
* See Egerton as last quoted p. 370.
On the Age of the Sandstones of the Newark Group. 368
mentioned paper of Sir Charles Lyell.
It has been seen that Mr. J. H. Redfield considers the other
specie
examination of the structure, than it appears at first view. One
or two of the species in my possession I think are even more
nearly homocercal than the Virginia fish.
I desire to add, that two of the Lepidoti from the table land
of India of which figures are given in the Jour. of the Geol.
Society, show very strong resemblances to two or three of my
fishes from the sandstone of Connecticut river at Sunderland, to
one of which I had proposed the name Ischypterus Marsh. Is
it not probable that the vast extent of sandstone and trap in
that distant region, is of like age with our Newark group? —
Already I have ventured to state verbally to the Association,
the valuable collection of fossils from the coal-field of
Deep River in North Carolina, now exhibited by Prof. Emmons,
d seem to be more determinate than that of saurians,
plantsy or marine fishes, whose general habitat and power of dis-
eroten, enable them to occupy a greater range in the geologi-
series,
364 R. Clausius on the Application of the
Art. XXVIII.—On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of
Heat to the Steam Engine; by R, CLAusIus.
[Continued from p. 203.]
27. Tu influence which the difference of the pressure in the
boiler and in the cylinder exerts upon the work, has been treated
aesed most completely up to this time in the work of de Pam-
ur (Théorie des Machines 4 vapeur), and I may be permitted
before I myself take up the subject, to state in advance the most
important points of this mode of treating it, only with a some-
what different notation and with the omission of the magnitudes
which relate to the friction, in order to be able the more easily
to show how far the theory no longer corresponds to our more
recent knowledge of heat, and at the same time to connect with
it the new mode of treating the subject, which in my opinion
must take its place.
28. The two laws mentioned already at the beginning of this
paper, which at that time were pretty generally applied to steam
orm the foundation of de Pambour’s theory. First, the law of
Watt, that the sum of the free and latent heat is constant. From
this law, the conclusion was drawn, that if a-quantity of steam
at the maximum density be enclosed in a shell impenetrable to
heat, and the cubic contents of this shall be increased or dimin-
ished, the steam will in this case be neither over-heated nor
— ) m
ensity, and that this would take _ wits independently of
olume may occur, whether the
In order now to be able more nearly to express the connection
which exists for steam at the maximum density, between volume
and temperature or volume and pressure, Pambour applied in
the second place the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac to steam.
From these we obtain the equation
103388 273-+4+¢
p ° 2734100’
if we assume with Gay Lussac the volume of a kilogram of steam
at 100°, at the maximum density, to be 1,696, and consider that
e pre thereby exerted by one atmosphere upon a square
meter is 10,333 kilograms, and if we denote for any other tem-
t, the volume and the pressure, assuming the same units,
(28.) v = 1,696.
ee ees
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 365
by vand p. In this equation we need only substitute for p the
known values from the tension series, in order to be able to cal-
culate for every temperature the correct volume under these
suppositions,
29. As, however, the integral 45 pdv plays a principal part in
(29) v= b+? ’
inwhich Band } are constants. He now sought to determine
these constants in such a manner, that the volumes calculated
from this formula corresponded as accurately as possible with
those calculated from the previous formula. As this however, is
hot possible with sufficient accuracy for all the pressures whic
occur in steam engines, he calculated two different formulas, for
Machines with and without condensers.
The first is as follows:
20000
(2 9a) = 1200 +p ;
and agrees best with the above formula (28) between } and 34
atmospheres, is applicable however also in a somewhat wider in-
terval, perhaps between 4 and 5 atmospheres.
e second formula determined for machines without conden-
Sers, is on the other hand as follows:
__ 21232
(29b) 9 et
It is most accurate between 2 and 5 atmospheres, and the whole
al of its applicability, extends about from 1} to 10 atmos-
eres, :
380. The magnitudes depending upon the dimensions of the
engine thick occur draleternsdiy the work, shall here be
denoted in the following manner, somewhat different from that
of Pambour. Let the whole space which becomes free for the
Steam during a stroke in the cylinder, including the injurious
* ae be called vw’. Let the injurious space form the fraction « of
@ whole Space, so that thus the injurious space 1s separated by
7) and the described by the surface of the piston by (1—¢) 0’.
Further let the portion of the whole space which has become
366 R. Clausius on the Application of the
D
engineer has opened the valve in the steam He and upon the
velocity with which the machine moves. This difference may
vary between wide limits by changing these conditions. The
of the influx, at the moment of cutting off from the boiler.
Though I do not consider it advantageous to introduce directly
into the general formulas such an assumption, which is made
only for the sake of numerical calculation in the absence of more
a data, yet I must here follow his process in setting forth
1s theor een
ry. ,
Pambour determines the pressure which takes place in the
cylinder at the moment of the cut-off by means of the relation
established by him between volume and pressure, inasmuch as
he thereby supposes that the quantity of steam passing into the
cylinder, during the unit of time and consequently also, during
one stroke of the piston, is known by special observations. We
will as before denote by M the whole mass which enters the eyl-
inder during a stroke of the piston, and that portion of it which
is in the form of steam by m. As this mass, of which Pambour
only considers the portion which is in the form of steam, fills the
space ev’ at the moment of the cut-off, we have, if we denote the
pressure at this moment by p, according to equation, (29)
whence we have
cabs
(30.) a= ‘
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 367
If we multiply this quantity by the space described by the
surface of the pees up to the same moment, namely (e—«) v’,
we obtain for the first part of the work, the expression:
(31.) W,=mB,.— —o'(e-s)b.
The law according to which the pressure varies during the ex-
pression which now follows, is also given by equation (29). Let
the variable volume at any moment be denoted by v, and the
corresponding pressure by p, and we have
band me — 6.
We must substitute this expression in the integral J pdv and
and then execute the integration from v=ev' to v=v' by which
means we obtain as the second part of the work
i
(32.) W,=mB.log~ —v'(1—e) 6.
tain the expression in the same form.
368 R. Clausius on the Application of the
By the addition of these four single quantities of work, we
obtain the whole work done during the circular process, namely,
in + ,
(35.) W=mB(— + log -) —v'(1-«) (64+ p,)—Me (p,-p,).
31. It is only necessary to divide the foregoing value by m,
if we wish finally to refer the work to the unit of weight of
steam, instead of to a single stroke of the piston, during which
the quantity of steam m is acting. For this purpose, we will
denote by 3, the fraction = which represents the relation of the
whole mass which passes into the cylinder, to the portion of it —
~. in the form of steam, and which is consequently somewhat
greater than 1; furthermore by v the fraction as that is the
space which is offered on the whole to the unit of weight of steam
in the cylinder, and by the fraction sn” oF the work correspond-
ing to the unit of weight of steam. Then we have
(x) W=2(— BE log )- Ae! —8) (6 +Po) a lo(p,; — Po): ‘
In this equation, there ocurs only one term which depends upon
the volume v, and it contains v as a factor. As this term is neg-
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 369
the same principles which I have already applied to the treat-
ment of several similar cases in a former r.*
these . ‘ .
denser also. e pressure and the temperature in the boiler
© On the behavior of steam ine nding under different circumstances, these An-
+a vol. 82, p. 263. Nheloie: it his report in the progress of 5s peng
. 5 * pfs i i i 1
cal Magazine, that in his opinion the same is incorrect in try sue
in so gener. ole
how far th iews follow from my words or these propositions are to overthrow
my eoudusions, . I do not Pa rine Sa myself obliged to defend my former works
against this blame. As however, the developmant which follows here rests as above
mentioned, entirely upon the same views by which I was at that time guided, Helm-
holtz, will perhaps find in it also the same errors in pr le. For this case, I await
his objections, only I would then desire him to go into the matter in a somewhat
More special manner.
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1866,
Be
—— R. Clausius on the Application of the
we have to do, namely, the — of the whole mass now pres-
ich is in the form of steam, be rep-
mn M,.
To Sletermine this quantity, let us consider the mass M+, in
any manner brought back to its initial condition, The vapor-
ized portion m,, is condensed in the cylinder by the downward
pressure of the piston, whereby it is supposed that the piston can
also penetrate into the injurious space. Let at the same time so
much heat be in any manner withdrawn from the mass, that its
temperature 7’, remains constant. Then the portion m, of the
whole fluid mass is pressed back into the boiler where it again as-
sumes the original temperature 7’,. The same condition is thereby
restored in the boiler as before the influx, inasmuch as it is of no
importance whether exactly the same mass, m, which was pre-
viously in the form of steam, is so now again, or whether an
equally large other mass has taken its place. The remaining por-
tion w is first cooled down, in the fluid condition from 7’, to 7;
and at this temperature the portion «, is converted into steam, by
which the piston moves so far that this steam can again assume
its original space.
34. The mass M+u, has consequently gone through a com-
plete circular process, to which we may now apply the theorem
t the sum of all the quantities of heat taken up by the mass,
during a circular process, must be equivalent to the whole exter-
nal work performed in it. The following quantities of heat are
taken up, one after another.
1. In the boiler, where the mass MW is heated from the temper
ature T, to 7,, and the portion m, must be converted into
steam at the latter temperature :
: m7, Me(T,- 7).
2. During the condensation of the portion m, at the temper
ature 7, :
— Myo. :
8. During the cooling of the portion « from 7’, to T,:
— Be(T,-7,).
ae eg the evaporation of the portion #,, at the tempera
as Hg Fos ‘
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 371
The whole quantity of heat which may be called Q, is conse-
quently :
(36.) Q=m,7r,-—mgr + Me(T,-T.) + 4, 1, -ue(T,-T>).
The quantities of work are found in the following manner :
. In order to determine the space described by the surface of
the piston during the influx, we know that the Whole space oc-
cupied by the mass M-+-#, at the end of this time, is
My Uy +(M+xn)o.
From this the injurious space must be subtracted. As this was
led in the beginning at the temperature 7’, for the mass y, of
which the portion “, was in the form of steam, it may be ex-
pressed. by My Uy + HO.
If we subtract this quantity from the previous one and multiply
the prnndes by the mean pressure, p, we obtain as the first
work :
(m2 Uz + Mo-u, uy) p'. é
2. The work, by the condensation of the mass m,, is:
eae :
3. By forcing back the mass m into the boiler
r
—Mop,.
4, By the evaporation of the portion », :
Ho Uo Po-
By the addition of these four quantities, we obtain for the
whole work W, the expression,
(87.) Wamu, (pj, —P2)—Mo(p,—Pi)— Mo %o (P1 ~Po)-
If we substitute these values of Q, and W, in equation (1),
namely, = ALW :
and bring the terms containing m, together on one side, he have
(xin. Mo|r Au ,— =m, ,+Me(T ,-T.)+ Mo? Hel ’,-T,)
) m,[r.4+Au,(p} sige a Gp! ny alle =p)
By means of this equation, we can calculate the quantity m,
from the quantities supposed to be known. 2 :
35. In Bins cases in which the mean pressure p; is considera-
bly greater than the final pressure 7., for instance, if we assume
that during the greater part of the period of influx, nearly the
Same pressure has taken place in the cylinder as in the boiler,
and that the pressure has first diminished to the lesser value p,,
y the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder, it may
happen that we find for m, a value which is smaller than m, +
“,, that consequently a portion of the steam originally present is
Ae pieted. f on the other hand, p) be but little greater or In
smaller than p,, we find for m, a value which is greater
nm,+#,. This last is to be considered as the rule in the
Steam engine, and holds good in particular also for the special
Case assumed by Pambour that p)=p,-
372 R. Clausius on the Application of the
two opposite actions of increasing and diminishing the —
0
uncompensated transformation whic uring the expan-
sion, by applying the integral which occurs in the equation
dQ
N=~ eer
to these quantities of heat.
The communication of the quantities of heat m,7,—%27s
and “,7,, occurs at constant temperatures, namely 7',, 7,, To
and these portions of the integral are therefore:
MT, Mary oho
| ;
and
?, 2
For the portions of the integral arising hon the quanties of heat
Me(T, -T,) and —me(T, — 7), we find, according to the process
y applied in § 23, the expressions :
Tr, T. 2
ern and ty.
By putting the sum of these quantities in the place of the above
are, we obtain for the uncompensated transformation, the
ue:
(38.) V=-
Mi fey Mele ZT, . Bots lo Ts.
TT, + T, Me log T, T. 4-ue eT,
37. We may now return again to the complete circular pro-
cess which takes place during the working of the machine, and
RY si a a ey
/
Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 378
consider as before the particular portions of the same in succes-
sion.
The mass U/ flows from the boiler in which the pressure p, is
assumed, into the cylinder, the part m, as steam, and the remain-
der as liquid. Let the mean pressure acting in the cylinder dur-
ing this time be denoted as above by p', and the final pressure
Pa:
The steam now expands until its pressure has sunk from p, to
a@ given value, p, and consequently its temperature from 7, to
T,. The cylinder is thereupon put into communication with the
condenser in which the pressure p, is exerted and the piston
makes the whole motion just completed again in the opposite
direction. The counter pressure which it thereby undergoes, is
during a somewhat more rapid motion greater than p,, and we
will iheoetire, to distinguish it from this value, denote the mean
counter pressure by p’,. ‘
steam which remains at the end of the motion of the pis-
ton in the injurious space, which must be considered for the next
stroke, is under a pressure which in like manner need be neither
may be greater or smaller than p{, according as the cutting off
from the condenser takes place somewhat before or after the end
of the motion of the piston, inasmuch as the steam in the first
place is compressed somewhat further, in the last case, on the
contrary, has time to expand somewhat more by the partial influx
into the condenser.
Finally the mass M must be brought back from the condenser
into the owe whereby as before the pressure p, acts to produce
the effect and the pressure p, must be overcome.
88. The quantities of work done in these processes are repre-
Sented by expressions apie similar to those in the simpler case
y considered, only that the indices of the letters are
hanged in a manner which is easily understood, and the quan-
tities which relate to the injurious space must be added. We
thus obtain the following equations:
For the period of influx according to § 34, in which however
» must be written instead of w,.
(39.) W,=(m,u,+Mo—4, wu!) Pi
For the expansion from the pressure p, to the p Ps
cording to equation (rx) if M+ is put mm the place of W:
(40.) W,=m, U3 P3- mata Pat lms 5 ms? g{M+u)e( T2- s)]
For the return of the piston, in which the space described by
ac-
= surface of the aca is equal to the whole space occupied by
he mass M+ under the pressure Ps, less the injurious space
represented by Mg UP Ho-
(41.) W,=—(m, Ugt+ Mo —, u"y) Po
374 W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mezico.
For the forcing back of the mass Minto the boiler:
42. W',——Mo(p,-py).
The whole work is therefore:
1
(43.) W'=—[m2". —m,%,4+(M+e)e(T,- Ts) ] + mM Uy (p',-P2)
$M 5U5( Pz —p',)—Mo(p, is +P! o—Po) Hot o( P's —p' 9).
, and m, which occur herein may be found
from equations (Xx1II) and (v1), in which it is only necessary to
substitute in the first the value p’, in the place of p, to change
in corresponding manner the quantities 7',,7, and u,, and to in-
troduce in the last the sum M+» in the place of MI will not,
however, here completely execute the elimination of the two
quantities m, and m, which is possible by these equations, but
will only substitute its value for one of them m,, because it is
more advantageous for calculation to consider the equation so
obtained together with the two already determined. The system
of equations which serves to determine the work of the steam
engine, is therefore in its most general form :
‘:
W= [171 —m,r,+Me(7,-T;)
Fito ty -mwe(T,— 7") 4 mu, (ps-Po)
‘iv.°% +H ot" o(2'o — 29) —Mo (P'o —Po)-
Mala +Aus(p' .-P2)=m 1" -+Me( 7-7 n) gt" 9—He( T,-T")
+ Attyuo(p" —p"9)+AMe(p,-p's)
mr, ™m
22 Z's
T, T, +(M-+- “)c log T, ‘
(To be concluded.)
eed
ART. XXIX.— Heamination of the Meteoric Iron from Xiquipileo,
exico; by W. J. Taytor.*
cog ng agricultural implements.
In a dissertation on metallic meteorites by Prof. W. S. Clark,
the following notices of its literature are given:—Ann. des Mines
Ser. 1, t. 2, p. 887. Gazeta de Mexico, 1784-5, vol. i., pp. 146,
200. Klaproth Beitriige zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineral
Korper, B. 4, s. 101. Sonnenschmit, Beschriebung der vorzug-
* From the Proceed. Acad, Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, vol. viii, No. 3.
W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mexico. 375
lichsten Bergwerke. Reviere de Mexico 1804, p. 192 and 288.
Chladni (U. F. M. 8. 336) Partsch, (D. M. s. 99.
In the examination made by M. Berthier he failed to detect
the presence of cobalt, but it is mentioned by Prof. Clark that
Manross had found it in a specimen from the cabinet of Prof.
Wohler; my examination confirms that of Mr. Manross.
To the kindness of W. 8S. Vaux, Esq., I am indebted for the
material for this investigation; Mr. Vaux has in his magnificent
cabinet the principal portion of a mass which weighed over ten
pounds. It was originally about six inches long, with an aver-
age diameter of three inches; the lump was oblong with rounded
ends, the whole being covered with a thin crust of limonite.
| A cross section cut from this lump has been carefully polished
and etched by strong nitric acid, which gives a most beaut
surface of about three and a half inches in length, by two and
a half in breadth, covered with the greatest complexity of wid-
mannstattian figures which almost mee description. ;
e surface is crossed by bands about one-tenth to one-six-
teenth of an inch in breadth; these apparent bands are cross
sections of different planes, as is readily perceived by their dif
ferent refractive “atl
the
to have been about an inch in diameter: it was in part
oir aeaaed eas Iminera
sufficiently pure for the determination of its specific gravity and
analysis, dn dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, thin lamin of
schreibersite separated with minute portions of chromic iron.
Through the kindness of Dr. F. A. Genth, I have been per-
oe ‘g make the following a in his laboratory :
yrrhotine dissolved in nitric acid, gave— —
No.1. : : é - 83°76 per cent.
: mee _ 57-95 silag
won, * x : : 4 ¢
ee ee eC
bal =
t, : ‘05 ‘“
oon, . : 96
Phosphorus, -_ ° : ee
376 W. J. Taylor on Meteoric Iron from Mezico.
No. 2 dissolved in niesiapentes acid, gave
Iron, - 58°25 per cent.
A residue Feira wittiok ainaclved after being a with
hytndahlorie acid and chlorate of potash : it consiste
Copper, : - 0°12 per cent.
The remainder consisted principally of chromic iron, with a
small portion of schreiber
The specific gravity was arr to be 4822.
The ratio of sulphur to the metals was ne i be
Sulphur, 2°102, Tro 066,
: Nickel and Cobalt, 0-245, | 2801
It will be seen that the — corresponds with that of
pytrhotine, considering its formula to be FeS, if we disregard
the “si impurities which were found with it.
meteoric iron was first treated in a flask with hydro-
chlorie bas and the gas evolved was passed through a solution of
ammonia chlorid of copper, but not a trace of sulphur could be
detected i in this manner.
In the fifth supplement to Rammelsberp’s Handworterbuch der
chemischen Mineralogie, this meteoric iron is mentioned as pas-
sive, experiments having been made by Prof. Wohler; but the
piece belonging to Mr. Vaux is evidently active, throwing down
metallic copper from a neutral solution of its sulphate. This
ae was octane with great care with confirmatory Te-
No. 1 was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, = : slight ee i-
tate was obtained by hydrosulphuric acid, which on a
examination before the bl nee
a trace of tin. é blowpipe, was found to be seit wi
Tron, - - - “ ‘ t.
Nickel, - - - - pet ete
Cobalt, “ “44. “ys
Sehreiberit, Chromic i iron, be, 88 xp
3 ‘95 e
Pitan, - . - 1S
oe 6
The phosphorus was estimated i ortion which
was first oxydized by nitrie acid on d fused ina in a platinum cruci-
ble with carbonate of soda.
o. 2 was dissolved in nitric acid.
It gave, Iron, 90°37 per cent.
ickel, 7.79
Insoluble residue, 1-91
100.07
On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. 377
Art. XXX.—On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays ; by ExisHa Foor,
(Read before the Amer. Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug. 23, 1856.)
Tae experiments here detailed were bapa, for the pur-
pose of investigating the heat in the Sun’s rays.
Two instruments have been used for the purpose. One
Leslie's differential thermometer. ‘gga bulbs ‘of ty were black
ened by holding them in the smoke of burning pitch. When
Beberally however, I have found it more convenient to use two
mercurial thermometers, and note their difference. Two small
and very delicate instruments were procured as nearly alike as
possible. The stems of both were attached to the same plate
about two inches apart, and the scales were marked upon it in
juxtaposition, so that the eye could see the indications of both
at the same time. Both bulbs were blackened as in the other
in the same m
a: in the sun and in the shade were noted, and their difference
was taken as equivalent to the indications of the. differential
thermometer.
The question that first arises is, does the difference between
the shaded and exposed bulbs afford a correct measure of the
heat in the a srays? To = Eos I would ask attention be-
fore proceeding to the experim
The theory of the diferent eas was accurately in-
vestigated by Leslie. In one of the foci of two parabolic re-
flectors he placed a tin ect which was pepe ed toe rs4
in liquids of different temperatures or frigo
eoet the heat was ha on one of the bulbs of P his
oa thermometer: and under all circumstances, the in-
ions of the instrument were found to be accurately propor-
to the differences between se temperatures of the canis-
ter and those of the surroundi
T have corey eee experiments a8 keeping the canister at the
uniform heat of boiling water in different temperatures of the
air, and by suttaing other sources of heat, and have always
found the results to accord with those Auenes by the distin-
the he dierent thermometer receives heat from the canister, it at
‘sons SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 66,—NOV., 1856,
48
6
378 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays.
portion or nearly so to the difference between its temperature
and that of the medium in which it is placed.
I regard it therefore as well established that the differential
thermometer affords a correct measurement of the differences be-
tween the heat of the canister and that of the surrounding air.
These differences may evidently be varied in two ways: by
changing either—
ist. The heat of the canister ; or—
2dly..The temperature of the air.
An increase or diminution in the heat of the canister would
directly increase or diminish the differences; whilst an increase
in the temperature of the air would diminish the difference until
an equality between the two was obtained. If the temperature
of the air were uniform and the changes were those of the canis-
ter alone, the instrument measuring the differences would cor-
rectly indicate those changes. But if the heat of the canister
were uniform and that of the air were varied, then would the in-
strument equally indicate those changes, but in a contrary direc-
tion. case the heat of both the canister and the air was vari
ment to obtain*the desired measurement.
It is upon these principles that I have applied the differential
thermometer to measure the comparative heat in the sun’s rays.
One of its bulbs received their direct action in the same way
that it received the rays proceeding from the canister. ‘The tem-
perature of the air was at the same time obtained by a common
thermometer. An increase was added to, and a diminution sub-
tracted from, the indications of the instrument to obtain the real
changes in the heat of the rays proceeding from the sun.
y first experiment was of the simplest kind. It was a win-
ter’s day. The differential thermometer was placed on the out-
side of a window where the temperature was below the freezin
point. The effect measured by the scale (which merely divide
the stem into equal parts) was 53°.~ It was then placed on
the inside of the window where the temperature was about
70°, and to my surprise the effect rose to 115°. The experiment
was many times repeated with similar results, although varying
On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. 379
some in amount from the different degrees of brightness in the
sun. The change in the temperature of the air was still to
added, and the conclusion seemed to be irresistible, that the sun’s
trays in passing into the heated room acquired a temperature that
the ad not derive from the sun. ;
he experiment was next repeated with different temperatures
of the room, and it was found that the intensity of the rays de-
pended upon the heat of the room. Indeed in the coldest
weather in winter I could impart to them a power which belonged
a summer’s sun
ameter and twenty-two in height. A copper base was adap
to it with a groove around the outer edge into which the receiver
fi ashes the point was
purpose of simultaneous comparison. he air within it was
Cooled by inserting a tin canister filled with frigorific mixtures.
The thermometers were supported within the receivers, and thus
atthe same time the same rays could be tested in the opposite
extremes of temperatures.
_ I subjoin, as an example, the following table (p. 380) contain-
Ing the results of an experiment made in February last, at eight
O'clock in the morning. It was a clear day an shone
through a window into the room where the instruments were
*
380 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays.
| No. of obs. Temp. of air. Temp, in sun. Diff. sage som:
1 40 46 6 6
- 50 6 10
3 48 56 8 16
4 50 60 10 20
5 54 66 12 26
6 58 40 12 80
- 63 80 17 40
8 70 90 20 50
9 48 100 22 60
10 83 106 23 66
11 88 110 22 50
I 120 22 80
18 102 124 22 aca
14 108 130 22 90
ist. That the heat in the sun’s rays is not uniform, such as
would proceed from a great heated body of uniform intensity,
nor is it such as was received from the canister, when kept at the
same degree of heat, but that it varies and is dependent upon
the temperature of the air.
2ndly. That the effects of the sun’s rays upon the thermometer
at the different degrees of heat in the receiver is the same that
has usually been observed at similar temperatures in the open
air. Itis easy by changing the heat within the receiver, to mml-
tate the power of the sun’s rays that has been observed at any
time or in any place; indeed at the same time, the same rays may
haye in one receiver the burning heat of a summer’s sun, and in
the other only the feeble action of winter.
3dly. It appears that heat does not travel along with the rays
of light as has been usually supposed, but that it is received, or
parted with, lost or acquired, according to the temperature of the
Each planet
may be suppoeed to possess its own atmosphere of heat: this will
y the sun’s light as the heat within the receiver
was affected; but they need not be frozen by their great dis-
tance, nor burned by their near approach to the great faminary ie
i IE pee oS te See ae ae Ed PY eel Rae eee
On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays. 381
effect. But the most striking results were obtained by concen-
trating the rays with a lens. One was placed in the receiver
with its focus directed upon an additional thermometer, th
second and third columns in the following table contain the tem-
peratures of the air and in the sun, and the fourth, the heat in
e focus, while the air in the receiver was heated as before.
The atmosphere at the time was not entirely clear.
No. of obs,|Temp. of air./ Temp. in sun.|Heat in focus,}
1 rE 3 104
if 3 114
30 D(
84. D
90 10:
00 L¢
04 14
2 OU he Co te
1
4
ry
S
,
3
)
}
4 38
) ‘
L
104
The burning glass was then so arranged that being within the
receiver its focus was on the outside. The result was as follows:
No. of obs./Temp. of air.|Temp. in sun.|Heat in focus. |
1 44 50 60
2 51 60 60
3 58 68 62
4 62 72 62
5 "3 83 a,
6 96 106 pe
centrated light. LS E
The subject is unfinished, and it is my intention to resume 1
2 some future occasion.
382 On the Heat in the Sun’s Rays.
Ame. XXXI.— Circumstances sapecing sa Heat of the Sun’s Rays ;
by Eunice Foor
(Read before the American Association, August 23d, 1856.)
My investigations have had for their object to determine the
different circumstances that — the thermal action of the rays
of light that proceed from the
Several oe have been awe ed.
action increases with the density of the air, and
is dirashinhad as it becomes more rarifie
The experiments were made with an air- pump and two cylin-
drical receivers of the same size, about four inches in diame-
ter and thirty in length. In each were placed two thermometers,
and the air was exhausted from one and condensed in the other.
After both had acquired the same temperature they were placed
in the sun, side by side, and while the action of the sun’s rays
rose to 110° in the condensed tube, it attained only 88° in the
other. I had no means at hand of measuring the degree of con-
densation or rarefactio
he observations taken once in two or three minutes, were a8
follows:
Exhausted Tube H Condensed Tube.
In shade. Tn sun. In shade. In sun.
vis) 80 45 80
46 82 48 95
80 a 80 100
83 36 82 : 105
84 88 85 110
This circumstance must affect the power of the sun’s rays in
different places, and contribute to produce their feeble action on
“Bascal. i on mountains,
cond e action of the sun’ ter
in moist aha; in dry air. ee 3 me ae
In one of the receivers the air was saturated with moishtte-=
in the other it was dried by the use of chlorid of calcium.
ve were placed in the sun as before and the result was as
follow:
Dry Air Damp Air.
Tn shade In sun In shade. ee
75 15
78 ¢ 78
82 102 82 106
82 104 82 110
82 105 82 114
88 108 92 120
Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 383
_ The high temperature of moist air has frequently been ob-
served. Who has not experienced the burning heat of the sun
that precedes a summer’s shower? The isothermal lines will, I
think, be found to be much affected by the different degrees of
moisture in different places. '
Thirdly. The highest effect of the sun’s rays I have found to
In Common Air. | In Carbonic Acid Gas.
In shade. | In sun. | In shade. Tn sun.
80 90 | 80 90
81 94 84 100
; 80 99 84 110
‘ 81 100 85 120
‘The receiver containing the gas became itself much heated—
very sensibly more so than the other—and on being removed, it
was many times as long in cooling. ;
An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high
temperature; and if as some suppose, at one period of its his-
tory the air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at pres-
ent, an increased temperature from its own action as well as from
Increased weight must have necessarily resulted. :
On comparing the sun’s heat in different gases, I found it to
be in hydr
gas, 108
ogen gas, 104°; in common alr, 106°; in oxygen
; and in carbonic acid gas, 125°.
Arn, XXXIL.— Review of a portion of the Geological Map of the
United States and British Provinces by Jules Marcou ;* by WiL-
_ Liam P. Buake. |
_ and widely circulated among European geologists, are necessarily
--‘Tegarded by us with no small degree of attention and curiosity.
any approach to accuracy. :
The oytieat a profile by M. J. Marcou, which
has appeared in the Annales des Mines and in the Bulletin of
i i 3 i du
* Carte Géologique des Etats-Unis et des Provinces Anglaises de PAmérique
_ ay Jules Marcou. Annales des Mines, 5° Séne, T. vii, p. 329. Published
480 with the following : : : :
Résumé explicatif , fan carte géologique des Etats-Unis dig. gears -
uses de ! Amérique du Nord, avec un profil géologique allan M Sul *
ppi aux cétes du Pacifique, et une planche de f es,
Bulletin de la Société @éologique de France. Mai, 1855, p. 815.
ees
384 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States.
lachians. The rocks of that peninsula, and on both sides of the
Golden Gate, are chiefly sandstone and shale, and the same for-
J
. ras
ae
confined to the end of the peninsula, but is continied:southward
to the western shores of t e Tulare lakes where the formations
are chiefly miocene tertiary, the eruptive rocks s y
n
The romontory called Point Pinos, which forms the headland
“of the Bay of Monterey, is represented as tertiary, while a por-
hyritic granite constitutes the whole point and forms the coast-
fing south to the Bay of San Carlos, and is probably continuous
southward to San tas Obispo; forming a high and unbroken
line of coast, all of which is colored tertiary on the map.
ing the eye further south, we find the color denotin page D4
tive and metamorphic rocks again usurping the whi
should be colored tertiary, at Point Conception, which consists
of beds of conglomerate and sandstone. J ghee hg
The broad alluvial tract at the head of the Gulf of California
—the Colorado desert—is made to extend nearly due north and
parallel with the Colorado to the Soda Lake. ‘The published
escription of this valley gives its direction as northwest. and
southeast, extending to the foot of San Bernardine Mountain,
* A former map by M. Marcou, published at Boston a little over two years nae
Was reviewed in vol. xvii, of this Journal. The present map is in part open t
< YieEaboaey Geological Report on the Pacific Railroad Route, surveyed by Lieut,
a Williamson in California, House Doc, 129, Washington, D. ©, Jan. 1855.
i
:
i
Ba
3
ees |
Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 385
. this range: indicated on the map, as granitic and carboniferous,
while on another map published in Gotha, it is represented as com-
by Lieut. G. K. Warren, U.S. A., shows that this range is purely
Paty and should not appear on the maps north of the
_the Wind River range, which according to Col. Fremont and
his collection, is granitic and rama. att trending north-west-
erly, is not represented on the map. remont’s por however,
highest peak of the range, and described by Fremont as
composed of granite, gneiss, syenite, and syenitic gneiss, 1s rep-
Tesented as a volcano. The Raton Mountains are also colored as
these, howeve
with the representation of the geological age
* Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
3.0 ~ the descriptions of the collections by Prof. James Hall, and report of Co
“gp emont, p. 295. :
Repc Z Examination of New Mexico, by Lieut. J. W. Abert, U.S.
“4c 8
,
t eport of an
°p. Engineers, 184
SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856.
49
386 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States.
much broader coloring representing the trias. Yet there is no
sufficient evidence of the presence of Jurassic formations, and
the Llano and other plateaux referred to that age are not Jurassic,
one of the mounds separated from the Llano Estacado by ero-
sion. The Gryphwa is said to have the greatest analogy with
ear much resemblance to O. Marshii of the inferior Oolite of
Europe.* In the text accompanying the map the species are
announced as identical, one with’ @. dilatata, the other with 0.
Marshii, Even if this identity be admitted, it does not author-
ize the conclusion that the strata are beyond question Jurassic;
or if it did, the occurrence of Jurassic at that one point on the
Canadian, would not authorize us to conclude that the formation
extends for more than a thousand miles on both sides of the
mountains. The genus Gryphea in America is eminently char-
acteristic of the Cretaceous formation, and species which very
closely resemble G. Tucumcari, if not in fact identical with it, are
very abundant in Alabama and New Jersey in the Cretaceous
formation. Moreover, all the species are found with many varia
tions according to the locality. The abundance and variety of
the species of this genus render it unsafe to regard (@. Zucwm-
sea are found in the government collection, but there are
none of the Ostrea,
across
the mountain chain, through the passes, into the valley of the
Rio Grande, and here near the summit of the table-lands just
il umerous
specimens of Inoceramus have also been obtained by Simpson,+
* See Resumé of a Geological reconnoissance, &c. R f Lieut. A. W. Whip-
ple, U. S. Top. Engrs., H. Doe. 129, chap. vi. p aaierg nie at
+ Described and figured by Prof. Bailey—Report by Lieut. J. W. Abert, U. 5:
oT Engrs. > Srghmaer yom of New Mexico. by
; ar ; p of the Route from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fé,
Lieut. J. H. Simpson, U. 8. Top. Engrs, Washington, 1850. :
ene poet
Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States. 387
Wislizenus and others along the valley of the Canadian river
not far from Pyramid Mount, where the Gryphea was pr Z
Farther east on the False Washita and near the Canadian, the
Cretaceous fossil Gryphea Pitchert occurs in abundance and near
the great beds of gypsum. Leon Spring, in the southern part of
the Llano, has afforded abundance of Cretaceous fossils, and thi
place is represented on the map as Jurassic. Cretaceous fossils
were also obtained by Capt. Pope from the bluffs of the Llano
at the Sulphur Springs of the Colorado and from the surface of
the plateau near the Sand Hills.* The Llano of Texas is well
known and is undoubtedly the continuation of the Llano Esta-
cado. The bluffs are filled with Cretaceous fossils already de-
alley of the Rio Grande. The same alternative is presented to
us along the Upper Missouri; the highest table-land 1s colored as
But the most striking feature of the map remains to be no-
ticed. We find an area equal to that of all the States east of the
Mississippi colored as Triassic. The section also represents this
formation as enormously thick, and with four divisions corres-
ponding to those in Europe. The color is extended on the map
along the whole course of the Missouri down to Council Bluffs,
to reach and bor-
d
been shown by Mr. Dawson to be
388 Marcou’s Geological Map of the United States.
similarity indicates a Carboniferous age rather than ‘Triassic,
The limit of the formation above or below, although perhaps
well defined at one point, may not be at others, or may be very
different; the red color of the strata—the only guide—being the
result of chemical changes and not of original deposition. The
lower limit is not clearly defined, and there are no outcrops
or uplifts of the strata sufficient to reveal the whole series. The
thickness, therefore, cannot be accurately stated.
The entire absence of fossils from these strata, so far as known,
Permian, or either of them, as Triassic alone. It would be most
separate geological a Whitney and Foster with
ames Hall, by D. D. Owen, and by Sir
cious attempt at generalization which has seldom been equalled.
The fact that Mr. Marcou’s map is widely circulating in Europe
just such American Geology as this, has made it the duty of
the science of the country to protest against its being acce ted
abroad, notwithstanding its publication under the sanction of the
logical Society of Psion: |
E. Emmons on New Fossil Corals from North Carolina. 389
Art. XXXIITL—On New Fossil Corals from North Carolina; by
HE. Emmons. (From a letter to one of the Editors.)
1. Talcose slates in connexion with granite or gneissoid
ite
2. Brecciated conglomerate from 300 to 400 feet thick. Parts
of this mass are porphyrized.
3. Slaty breccia associated with chert or hornstone.
4. Granular quartz, which is in part vitrified and filled with
this fossil and with siliceous concretions, which are about the size
of almonds. It is 250-800 feet thick.
5. Slaty quartzite, its fossils much less numerous. It is 40
feet thick.
6. Slaty sandstone without fossils, 50 feet.
7. White quartz, more or less vitrified, filled with fossils and
almond-shaped coneretions.
8. Jointed granular quartz, similar to that of Berkshire Co.,
Mass., with only a few fossils.
9. Vitrified quartz without fossils, 30 feet thick.
10. Granular quartz, no fossils, thickness great, but unde-
rmined,
- e :
11. Overlying these siliceous beds is a clay slate like that so
common in Ranascaat and Columbia Cos., N. York. As yet, it
has yielded me no fossils. The slate as a whole, remains un-
changed, but frequently contains vitrified beds, or silicified ones,
the origin of which I do not propose to speak of at this time.
1b
la le
It is evident the fossil is a coral. Among the specimens I think
I can recognize two species. The generic name which I have
given it is Pale@otrochis, “ Old Messenger,” the smaller is the P.
manor (fig. 1), the larger, P. major, fig. 2.
390 E. Emmons on New Fossil Corals from North Carolina.
a
aia. but extend from the apices to the base or edge.
P. minor pe
a rounde
e
young one, appears on the edge of fig. la. The bie Sacer of
similar buds produces a change of form, as represente
individuals are very numerous, the rock being compose almost
entirely of them, intermixed with concretions, for 600 or 700
feet in thickness.
The debris of this fossiliferous sandstone has been worked
quite successfully for gold. The metal is contained in ferrugl-
nous masses, in the rock which appears to have been an aurifer-
ous pyrites. Over $100,000 have been procured by pulverizing
and washing this material which also very frequently contaims
the Palzxotrochis.
Albany, September 10, 1856.
J
vA
J. Eights on a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas. 391
Art. XXXIV.—Description of an Isopod Crustacean from the Ant-
arctic Seas, with Observations on the New South Shetlands ; by
JAMES KieHTs.— With two plates.
E. Gavit. ugh the kindness of Mr. Gavit we are allow
the use of the plates, and therefore here republish the description
of Dr. Eights. is not clear that the genus Glyptonotus is
Tetradecapoda. Still we cite it entire, as published.
e em volume of Transactions of the Albany Institute
PP. 58-69,) contains Remarks by the same author on the New
South Shetland Islands, from which we make cep after
as, Gexus GLYPTONOTUS, Fights.
Animal composed of a head, thorax, and post-abdomen, consti-
‘tuting in all thirteen distinct segments. aceon
_ Head deeply inserted into the cephalic segment of the t rae
Eyes sessile, and finely granulate. Antenne two pairs, place
392 J. Hights on a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas.
one above the other, with an elongate multiarticulated filament.
Mouth as in the ordinary Jsopods ; mandibles not palpigerous;
the two superior foot-jaws expanded into a well defined lower
lip, bearing palpi.
Thorax separated into seven distinct segments, the three poste-
rior ones biarticulate near their lateral extremities; each segment
giving origin to a pair of perfect legs, terminating with a strong
and slightly curved nai
in length as they proceed to the place of insertion; segmen
triangulate, with angular projections on their surfaces; edges of
are indistinct; segments angular, external one much the longest;
extremities and angles likewise spined. Mouth with the labrum
united, sub-cordate; its palpi five-jointed, snugly eee
The thoraa is composed of seven distinct segments, each one
being beau y ornamented on its superior surface by an elon-
J. Eights on a Crustacean from the Antarctic Seas. 393
angulated legs, composed of the ordinary parts. The three an-
terior pairs project themselves forward, and are closely com-
he base,
Which enables the animal to close them together in a line along
its centre beneath. These plates are about the length of the seg-
Ment, and of a triangulate form, each one having near its ter-
Mination a small oval articulation. The segment and margi
Plates are slightly inflated along their external edges, produc
Sie Si ee Rig <i
z
=
oS
m
4
i)
2
=
og,
oO
‘
is
et
°
eS
a4
a
co)
S
oS
Ler}
:
og,
5
wm
=}
8
Lae
or.
®
am obtusely elevated border.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856.
50
394 J. Eights on the New South Shetlands.
They inhabit the bottom of the sea, and are only to be obtained
when thrown far upon the shores by the immense surges that
prevail when the detached glaciers from the land precipitate
themselves into the ocean.
_ Eetracis from the Remarks of Dr. Hights on the New South
Shetlands.
After landing at several places along the coast and spending
some days at Staaten Land, we proceeded to the new South Shet-
land Islands, whieh are situated between 61° and 63° of south
latitude, and 54° and 63° west longitude. They are formed by,
an extensive cluster of rocks rising abruptly from the ocean, to
a considerable height above its surface. Their true elevation
cannot easily be determined, in consequence of the heavy masses
singu-
larly on the ear; and when sufficiently undermined, extensive
aap crack off with an astounding report, crea remen-
ous surge in the sea below, which as it rolls ove’ rface,
Sweeps everything before it, from the smallest ani at feeds
on its shallow bottom, to those of the greatest bulk.; Entire
not un-
frequently found in elevated situations along the shores many
feet above the high water line, and I know of no other cause
capablé of producing this effect. Whales are very common in
this vicinity. er
J. Eighis on the New South Shetlands. 395
The rocks are composed principally of vertical columns of
basalt, resting upon strata of argillaceous conglomerate ; the pil-
lars are united in detached groups, having at their bases sloping
banks constructed of materials which are constantly accumula-
ting by fragments from above. These groups rise abruptly from
the irregularly elevated plains, over whose surface they are here
and there scattered, presenting an appearance to the eye not
unlike some old castle crumbling into ruin, and when situated
0
questionably by the icebergs from their parent hills on some far
More southern land, as we saw no rocks of this nature in situ on
this coast, as its angles retai
fe Their external surfaces are closely: appli
to each other, though but slightly united, and consequently the
re continually falling out by the expansive power of the con oe
ing water among its fissures.’ When they are expose hy: e
intiuence of the atmosphere for ps Pray of time, they are for
@ small depth of a rusty brown color, sa algae
ion which sag contain actin partially 1 pecdomagadl _
times they are covered. by a thin coating of quartz an
Sdony, a gee
AP nic,
’ .
396 J. Eiighis on the New South Shetlands.
Clusters of these columns are occasionally seen reposing on
their side in such a manner as to exhibit the surfaces of their
divided by regular fissures into large rhombic tables, many of
which appear to have recently fallen out, and now lie scattered
fragments of rock, whose principal ingredient appears to be green
aspec
A being much softer in its nature than the basalt and
more affected by decomposing agents, the number of fragments
are consequently greater in proportion, and much more finely
E.. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetts. 897
pulverised, forming the little soil which supports some of the
scattered and scanty patches of vegetation on these islands.
The minerals embraced in this rock are generally confined to its
upper part where it unites and passes into the incumbent amyg-
daloid, and many of them are also in common with that rock.
They consist chiefly of quartz, crystalline and amorphous, ame-
thyst, chalcedony, cacholong, agate, red jasper, felspar, zeolite,
calcareous spar in rhombic crystals, sulphate of barytes, a minute
crystal resembling black spinelle, sulphuret of iron and green
carbonate of copper.
The only appearance of an organized remain that I anywhere
saw, was a fragment of carbonized. wood imbedded in this con-
glomerate. It was in a vertical position, about two and a half
feet in length and four inches in diameter: its color is black, ex-
hibiting a fine ligneous structure, and the concentric circles are
distinctly visible on its superior end; it occasionally gives sparks
with steel, and effervesces slightly in nitric acid.
ere are a number of active volcanoes in the vicinity of these
ern shore, contains several. pipe ore island also one of this
“only has boiling springs, and a whitish substance like melted
eldspar exudes from some of its fissures. ie ag! #
Arr. XXX V.—Deseription of a large Bowlder in the Drift of Am-
herst, Massachusetts, with parallel strie upon four sides; by
Professor Epwarp HrrcHcock.
IN grading one of the streets in Amherst last year, the surface
of a large bowlder, or ledge, in front of the residence of Hon.
Ed mite aes.
Tegion, viz., south a few degrees east. This fact led me to sus-
pect the rock to be the top of a ledge: but on probing the earth
around, I found it to be a bowlder. The present summer I pro-
to my class in Geology, (which is the Junior Class in sod
ege), to dig around the specimen, and try to remove at ~— + e
top of it to the vicinity of the Geological Cabinet, about 1a a
mile distant, where it might serve as a fine example of strize to
fu " They promptly r) ed in the enterprise, and
on digging around the specimen, found it to be of an oblong
398 E. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetts.
shape, the four longest sides being nearly at right angles to eack
other, while the ends were more irregular. Its medium length
was 64 feet; its breadth, 54 feet; and its thickness, 2% feet.
Consequently its weight was about eight tons. It was determined
to raise it out ofits bed; and when this was done, I was sur-
ginally, except that the ends are inverted. Deeply engra
upon one end are the words,—“ The Class of 1857 ;” that bein
" — when they graduate.
How now shall we explain the parallel striation on four sides
of this bowlder? Striated blocks I believe, have generally been
regarded as having been frozen into an iceberg, or a glacier,
which grated along the surface. But this explains the stri only
on one side. For if the bowlder should happen to have been
frozen into. a second iceberg, or glacier, how small a chance
would there be, that it would be scratched in a parallel direction
southern journey, it were frozen into the bottom of an iceberg.
As this grated over the rocky surface, it would soon be smoothed
and : Nor is it strange that in such a manner the erosioD
4
Ei. Hitchcock on a Bowlder in Amherst, Massachusetts. 399
and grooving should be deeper, and the edges less rounded, (as
they are) than by what I suppose to have been the subsequent
ye the bowlder was a part of the ledge from which it was bro-
en. In that case it must have been turned over after starting
being able to move it, were forced over it, ;
Ifa strong cael were thus crowding detritus against and
over the bowlder, its oblong form would keep its longer axis in
the same direction as the stream. Hence the smaller fragments
forced against and over it, would smooth the top and the sides
in the same direction. They would press most heavily upon the
top, and accordingly the strize are much deeper there than upon
the sides, though it should also be recollected that the edge of
stratum is usually harder than its face.
_ I impute the parallel striation of this bowlder, then, first to
its great weight, which caused smaller fragments to slide over it
more or less; and secondly, to its oblong form, which kept it
nearly in the same position while advancing.
The only strive on this bowlder not yet described, are a few
faint ones running obliquely across the present north end, (the
400 Scientific Intelligence.
among these wagon tracks 1 can see one or two produced by
some other agency; and it is not improbable that during its
rough transportation, bowlders might have been forced over it
in that direction.
I have regarded the detritus collected along the central part
of Amherst, where this bowlder lay, as Modhfied Drift: that is,
coarse drift that has been subsequently acted upon, and more or
less rounded and sorted by water. Generally the fragments at
this place are more rounded and of less size than we see in the
coarse drift upon the neighboring hills, and yet the bowlders are
considerably larger, though the one now described is much the
largest I have seen in our modified drift.
_ As this bowlder seems to me to be of unusual interest, and
is now placed permanently, through the energy and scientific
zeal of the class of 1857, where geologists can examine it, I have
thought this description might be acceptable to the readers of the
Journal. At any rate, it has been the means of qualifying one
College Class, as they wander over the world, to examine str
ated bowlders and ledges.
—_— _.___ E
iene een
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
On the wave lengths of the most refran ible rays of light in the In-
terference Spectrum.—E1sENnLopr has Aa ear a ct i
plane of which is at right angles to the incident ray. Di ‘a
lattices of different kinds may be fastened immediately in front of the
object-glass; a white or transparent screen is pl a pro
( very narrow and n us.
pnenomena of diffraction described by Schwerd in his classical work may
in this way be represented so that they may be seen by a number of
the
m
#
~
Chemistry and Physics. 401
centre and between the two lines H in the violet, an ill defined dark space.
When fluorescent paper was made to receive the spectrum, this dark
ace became at once sharply defined. The er upon
chinin-paper than upon the other fluorescent substances which the author
d, and he confined himself to this in his investigation. The author gives
a mathematical investigation of the spectrum as produced by parallel open-
ings, and then makes with the compasses upon the fluorescent paper the
Tequisite measurements of the distances of the points where the first
bright spectrum of the diffracted light commences. The wave length is
then given by the formula 4—=e sin y, in which e represents the distance
between two successive lattice-openings and y the angle which the dif-
ted ray makes with the normal to the surface of the lattice. By
Placing a violet-colored glass over the opening near the heliostat, the
most refrangible end of the spectrum became visible with still greater
distinctness and exhibited the sharpest termination: even on common
measurements the following wave lengths in fractions of a millimeter.
Extreme visible red rays = 00007064
Extreme visible violet rays 4 == 0°0003956.
Most refrangible invisible rays 4 = 00003540. ee
Hence it appears that light from the extreme red to the extreme invisible
ray embraces a complete octave.
With the view of confirming this result. the author produced upon
e object-glass and a Munich
nees of these lines were measured B, and | as
ordinates upon an axis of abscissas upon which the single distances of
ordinates are expressed by the difference of the corresponding wave
lengths, In this manner the author obtained a curve which from the line
H to the extreme invisible ray appears to follow the same law as the other
Portions of the spectrum. Fisenlohr has furthermore found that crown
does nog absorb the invisible rays in such a manner as to shorten
reing a hole in the screen
the invisible rays fell the
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66,—NOV-, 1856.
51
402 : Scientific Intelligence.
author separated these and employed them for various experiments on
polarization, double refraction and dispersion, which he promises to de-
i —Pogg. Ann. xeviii, 353, June, 1856
connection between the theorem of the equivalence of heat and
work and the relations of permanent gases—Cuavsius has published
some critical remarks upon the paper of Hoppe which has been noticed
in this Journal,* his object being mainly to shew that he himself had
considered the subject from a different point of view and had arrived at
essentially the same results as Hoppe. In a memoir “On a change im
the form of the second principal theorem of the mechanical theory of
heat,” Clausius deduced the equation
(1) Q=—U+ A.W,
in which Q denotes the heat communicated to a body during any cha
of state, W the external work performed, A the equivalent of heat for the
unit of work, and U a quantity of which it may be assumed that it is
perfectly determined by the initial and terminal state of the body. Th
: J :
may be considered as a function of these two quantities. When the ex-
ternal work consists only in overcoming a pressure p which opposes the
expansion, we have
w= a8 p dv,
and we obtain from the previous equation by differentiation,
dU dM
(2) aQ=F dt (T+ 4-7) de. :
In applying this equation to the more special case of a permanent gas we
may express the ory of dt and dv in another manner. The first of
these two factors ae. is evidently nothing but the specific heat at a con-
stant volume, and we write for it c. To express the second factor, the
— heat at a constant pressure, c’ must be introduced. According to
é laws of Gay Lussac and Mariotte, we haye
Be iu.
P ve i. (a+),
in which a represents the inverse volume of th i ion.
Picea Sie th of the coefficient of ce sae
dy = Po:*o_ gy
as ; (4-+1,)p
Substituting this value for dv we have
*
a & ee OPET,
aq=[F, + Cate (2
; ¢ dt + (4+1,)p dv + AP )] sia
The sum in the parenthesis [ ] represents the quantity ¢’, and if we sub- a
tract from it the quantity c= a we have
* Vol. xxi, p. 409.
Chemistry and Physics. 403
1 Po+% (dU )
sor ate,
and hence for the second factor the expression
; a+it 4 ‘
—+A.p= 2 (c'—c)p.
dv P Dor % (
By substituting these expressions in (2), we have
(8) dQ=edtp 2+ pds,
Po:o
or if we signify the integration
(4) Q=fcdt+ ok “2_f(c'—<) pd,
Po-o
which is the sought equation. It is easy to see also that a deviation from
the laws of Mariotte and Gay Lussac can be taken into consideration in
this investigation as easily as in that of Hoppe.—Pogg. Ann. xeviii, 173,
May, 1856.
3. On Ozone—Anvrews has communicated the results of a very
elaborate and extended investigation of this subject, which forms an im
portant contribution to our knowledge. The author in the first place
repeated the experiments of Baumert, who arrived at the “Saige oe bese
m its chemical action. Andrews found, however, that when the car-
h ;
ozone, and therefore that this contains no hydrogen. In like manner
Was shewn that no. water is produced when ozone is decom ry
4. Prepa ,
directly from the fluorid instead of employing cryolite. The fluorid is
carbonic oxyd is heated in contact with hydrate of pore gaa of
Potash is produced, the reaction being represented by the eq
200 + KO, HO = C2H0s, KO.
404 Scientific Intelligence.
This observation suggested to the author that formic acid might be pro-
duced easily and abundantly by making carbonic oxyd unite with water
at the instant of its formation, As oxalic acid is decomposed by heating
into carbonic acid, carbonic oxyd and water, it occurred to Berthelot that
by heating this acid with some substance which should act by contact,
the water and carbonic oxyd would unite to produce formic acid. Glyc-
erin was found to answer the purpose perfectly. The author introduces
into a retort of 2 litres capacity, 1 kilogram of syrupy glycerin, 1 kilo-
am of commercial oxalic acid, and 100-200 grammes of water.
receiver is to be attached and the retort heated. gently to 100° C.: car-
nic acid is given off, and after from twelve to fifteen hours all the oxalic
acid is decomposed, while a little weak formic acid has passed over. Half
a liter of water is to be added to the matter in the retort and the whole
to which he applies it. We would also suggest that the practice of com-
i mt ah with theory
age obtained should be stated.
xovii, 885, xcix, 197,
-
Re Ooo ee cs
Chemistry and Physics. 405
d
vantageous in the preparation of aluminum to mix the finely pulverized
mixture, 8 or 10 grammes of sodium are to be used. The crucible must
be previously strongly dried. It is then to be quickly heated to a white
heat in a good furna At the moment of reduction a noise is heard
and some sodium is volatilized which burns with flame. r this the
heat must be kept up for a quarter of an hour to fuse the mass com-
8. Researches on the Fluorids—Fremy has communicated the results
5s 6 ’ . .
(1.) Fluohydrie acid may be obtained from anhydrous acid in a state
of purity by calcining, in a platinum apparatus, the fluohydrate of fluorid
of potassium, previously dried. In this state the acid is gaseous at ordinary
d salts. es
i i lity; the
(4.) The anhydrous fluorids are remarkable for their stability;
h i table, and sometimes decompose
ydrated fluorids are, on the somite “< e Be Goyaiio 28. aml
eaving as a residue an oxyfluorid or oxyd. ru
(4) The Grueids so Steel tendency to unite to form double fluorids ;
is prc belongs even to the insoluble fluorids. Thus these last
compounds must never be prepared by double decomposition, —
they always retain, in their state of double salt, a part of the soluble
salt which has bee Joyed in their preparation. :
(6.) Hydrogen rye Tob devott/poee all the fluorids “ the aid of heat ;
. Md i
ori : .
gr ili ‘dg of lead, tin, &e. ‘The reduction of the metal-
he fuoride = SL caeageerttia Bate of lead and tin, which resist the action
406 Scientific Intelligence.
of. carbon, appears to demonstrate, in a positive manner that these com-
pounds do not contain oxygen, and are really binary substances.
(7.) All fluorids, even those of potassium} sodium and calcium, are
rapidly decomposed by the vapor of water.
8.) Oxygen and chlorine, at a strong heat, decompose fluorid of calcium,
and set free a gas which appears to be fluorine
-) The vapor of sulphur does not act on fluorid of calcium, but
this body is decomposed completely by the vapor of sulphid of carbon;
there is formed in this case sulphid of calcium,. and probably fluorid of
carbon ; the presence of silicious matters facilitates the reaction.
(10.) The analyses of the principal fluorids which are cited in this
memoir, as those of the fluorids of potassium, sodium, calcium, tin, lead
and silver, show that.the equivalent of fluorine, determined by Berzelius,
is ex
(11.) All the anhydrous fluorids, when fused, may be decomposed by
the galvanic battery i i i
s,
of the fluorid A ae de Chimie et de Physique, xlvii, 5, May, 1856
Lficia
_ 10. On Acetylamin.—Nataxsox has more fully described this very
H CsHs
H NO,HO= H $4 ono, ~
H H
The decomposition begins at 150° C.; the acetylamin distils over at 220°,
as a slightly yellow liquid of peculiar ammoniacal persistent smell. It
ous at 218°, and is soluble in all proportions in water and alcohol, but
not in ether. The density of its vapor was found to be 1-522=4 vols.
By union with acids it forms salts of acetyl-ammonium, from which it is
very remarkable that potash precipitates the hydrate of the oxyd of
acetyl-ammonium and not acetylamin. The author describes an ethyl
ty n acetylamin—Ann, der Chemie und Pharmacie,
xevili, 287, 291, June, 1856. ah on
11. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel without Fuel, (Proe.
Brit. Assoc., ~eut 1856; Ath. No. 1504.)—At a a of the British —
the
; Advancement of Science, held at Cheltenham in August
ast, Mr. H. Bessemer read a highly interesting and important paper oD
the manufacture of malleable iron and steel without fuel. For two years
Chemistry and Physics. 407
Mr. Bessemer has devoted his attention almost exclusively to the subject.
Preliminary trials were made on from ten to twenty pounds of iron, and
“although the process was fraught with considerable difficulty, it exhib-
ited such unmistakeable signs of success,” Mr. Bessemer observed, “as to
induce me at once to put up an apparatus, capable of converting about
seven hundred of crude pig iron into malleable iron in thirty minutes.”
“I set out with the assumption that crude iron contains about five per
cent. of carbon; that carbon cannot exist at a white heat in the presence
of oxygen without uniting therewith and producing combustion; that
such combustion would proceed with a rapidity dependent on the amount
of surface of carbon exposed: and, lastly, that the temperature which
lomat
=
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few b
of coke, so as to dry the brickwork, and heat up the vessel for the first
operation, after which the fire is to be all carefully raked out at the tap-
time, becomes
Worn away, and a new lining is required. I have before mentioned that
the ftiyares are situated aenly sei to the bottom of the vessel; the fluid
al will therefore rise some eighteen inches or two feet above them.
It is therefore necessary, in order to prevent the metal from entering
___ the tuyére holes, to turn’on the blast before allowing the fluid crude iron
__ to run into the vessel from the blast furnace. This having been done,
4nd the fluid iron run in, a-rapid boiling up of the metal will be heard
408 Scientific Intelligence.
oxygen in the atmospheric air combines with the carbon contained in the
iron, producing carbonic acid gas, and at the same time evolving a pow-
erful heat.
through the crude iron has been entirely consumed. The temperature,
however, is so high that the chemically combined carbon now begins to
separate from the metal, as is at once indicated by an immense increase
or six minutes, all further appearance of it ceases, when a steady and
werful flame replaces the shower of sparks and cinder which always
accompanies the boil.
earthy bases that are associated with the iron. The violent ebullition
which is going on mixes most intimately the scoria and the metal, every
part of which is thus brought in contact with the fluid oxyd, which will
thus wash and cleanse the metal most thoroughly from the silica and
other earthy bases which are combined with 2 iron, while the sulphur
and other volatile matters which cling so tenaciously to iron at or i
e loss in weight of crude iron, during its conversion into an ingot
of malleable iron, was found on a mean of four experiments to be 124
per cent, to which will have to be added the loss of metal in the finish-
ing rolls. This will make the entire loss probably not less than 18 pet
cent, instead of about 28 per cent., which is the loss on the present sys
tem. A large portion of this metal, however, is recoverable by treating
out of the furnace dur
easily recovered. I have before mentioned that after the boil
rfu 4
soon as this diminution of flame is a parent, the workman well a
. t,
know that the process is completed, and that, the crude iron has been —
Pees
Chemistry and Physics. 409
to thirty-five minutes, with the expenditure of about one-third part the
~
)
or
ee
root
=
f=)
beard
n
&
La =,
ee
R
®
et
om
©
2g
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i
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ard
}
2
oa
of
5
S
b= J
°
@
fo¥
me
5
°
5
co
&
poe
5
Qu
®
becomes softened into a pasty mass. But such is the excessive tempera-
ture that I am enabled to arrive at with a properly shaped converting
t, that I am able not only
3
©.
a)
ou
foW
rc)
Cael ©
=|
=
3.
°
So
mM
im
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te
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e
S
furnace, This chamber has two or more openings on the sides of it, and
its i ards to the throat.
floor is made to slope downw eee |
ve
a 4
into the small chamber, piling them up around the opatng € the t a
When this is done he will run in his charge of crude meta’,
i t
pieces, however, that remain, may then ushed y i
and by the time the process is complies rise aa and ulti
mately combined with the rest of the charge, S0 ;
whether cast or malleable, may thus be used up without any loss or ex
nse, ~
As an example of the power
I may
which time two-thirds of the metal solidified, and the res run off.
A Reka of ucpden Bik a then put in, anda fresh charge of fluid
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66,—NOV., 1856.
ve 52
410 Scientific Intelligence.
iron run into the vessel, which had the effect of entirely remelting the
former charge, and when the whole was tapped out, it exhibited, as usual,
that intense and dazzling brightness peculiar to the electric light.
To persons conversant with the manufacture of ‘iron it will be at once
apparent that the ingots of malleable metal which I have described will
make several bars or rails from a single ingot; doubtless this would have
been done long ago had not the whole process been limited by the size of
the ball which the puddler could make.
The facility which the new process affords of making large masses
will enable the manufacturer to produce bars that on the old mode of
le t i
working it was impossi
ne of the most important facts connected with the new system of
manufacturing malleable iron is that all the iron so produced will be
that quality known as charcoal iron, not that an y charcoal is used in its
manufacture, but because the whole of the processes following the smelt-
fectly free from those injurious properties which that d
never fails to impart to iron that is brought under its influence.
Same time, this system of manufacturing malleable iron, offers extraor
founded
Chemistry and Physics. ; 411
shapes required, provided that we increase the size and power of our ma-
chinery to the extent necessary to deal with such large masses of metal.
A few minutes’ reflection will show the great anomaly presented by the
scale on which the consecutive processes of iron-making are at present
earried on. The little furnaces originally used for smelting ore have from
time to time increased in size, until they have assumed colossal propor-
tions, and are made to operate on 200 or 300 tons of materials at a time,
giving out ten tons of fluid metal at a single run. e manufacturer has
a time, to be carefully manipulated and squeezed into form. i
en we consider the vast extent of the manufacture, and the gigan-
tic scale on which the early stages of the process are conducted, it is as-
W
and thus rescue the trade from the trammels which have so long sur-
rounded it. i i
Before concluding these remarks I beg to call your attention aa.
portant fact connected with the new process, which affords peculiar facili-
ties for the manufacture of cast-s a ry Glioma the
‘A : iately followin
t that stage of the process immediately con of Se of ordinary
than soft iron; it is also more
hile it is much harder,
d strength
adapted to purposes where lightness an '
Are specially required, od wha there js much wear, as in the case of
412 Scientific Intelligence.
railway bars, which from their softness and lamellar texture soon become -
bout
more difficult to roll, its cost per ton may fairly be considered to be the
same as iron; but, as its tensile strength is some thirty or forty per cent.
greater than bar-iron, it follows that for most purposes a much less weight
of metal may be used, so that, taken in that way, the semi-steel will form
ordinary pu
1 n some Dichromatic Phenomena among Solutions, and the means
of representing them ; Dr. Guapstorx, (Proc. Brit. Assoc. Augus
ditions, cochineal, and chromium, and cobalt salts were examined and
represented. Among the more notable results were the following :—A
, such as chromic oxyd, produces ve nearly the same spectral im-
—_ maintained that a large amount of alkaline litmus is of a purer red
than acid litmus itself. nother kind of dichromatism was Csiuiail 4
Chemistry and Physics. 413
dependent not on the actual quantity of colored material, but on the rel-
ative proportion of the solvent. Diagrams of the changing appearances
of sulphocyanid of iron, of chlorid of copper, and of chlorid of cobalt
were exhibited.
the circumstances attending Palmer’s trial induced him to make a series
of experiments on the subject, and he tried the effects of a precipitant
arts
414 Scientific Intelligence.
Wright) gave each rat a quarter of a grain of powdered strychnia, and
two hours afterwards a quarter and half a grain more to one of the three,
t morning at four o'clock they were all alive, and had eaten food
quarter of a grain. In about three hours afterwards he applied the usual
test, but could not detect the least indication of strychnine in the precip-
so abstracted from the fluid, forming by coagulation (say, for instance, in
his idea had oceurred
heart empty of blood, whilst the left was full, some of the blood being
liquid and some clotted. The stomach was carefully secured at bot its
orifices, and detached. On making an incision, su at not
7 : ; + BrP :
seeing the paper in which I had wrapped the pill, naturally expecting 1t
would have been reduced to a pulp by the fluid of the stomach. I, there-
fused. In this case, also, none of the absorbed st
in the blood or any part of the animal, although the greatest care was ob-
served in making the experiments. .The lecturer, who was listened to
throughout with great attention, added that he had made further ©
periments, which he thought proved that it was highly probable a more
- less insoluble compound of organic or animal matter with strychnia
, 0 ae
Geology. 415
Il. GEOLOGY.
1. On the Spongeous Origin of the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk
Formation ; by J. 8. Bowersank, (Proc. Brit. Assoc, August, 1856;
Ath. No. 1505.)—The author attributes the whole of the numerous strata
within eighteen hours, ultimately forming one sponge. e occurrence
of the shells of Echinoderms and of bivalve shells filled with flint was
accounted for on the same principle; and the author produced recent bi-
valve shells, in a closed condition, completely filled with recent sponges of
me species as the sponges of commerce. e loose specimens of
_ fossil sponges included in the Wiltshire flints were explained on the prin-
ciple that, although sponges of the same species readily adhere to each
r when placed in contact, those of different species never unite, how-
almipes roseus than to any other type of living starfish, It is to this
;
uite absent, there is a site re-
iginally described by Forbes as
ep tinbleterep erties on dort Sans had but two rows of
large plates. The name Pa-
416 _ Scientific Intelligence.
increase in thickness of this shell would take place by the solidification
of each of the surface strata of the nucleus in succession. If the matter
composing the interior of the earth is subjected to the same physical laws
as the material of the solid crust coming under our notice, the change of
state in the fluid must be accompanied by a diminution of its volume.
The contrary hypothesis has been hitherto always assumed in mathemati-
esis has led show that it fundamentally affects the whole vila
the
the shell by congelation from the nucleus.
| Geology. 417
: oma by the nucleus at the surface of the shell were adduced the
: sity of the fluid strata’ were due to the pressures they su nd i
| a. of the nucleus which prod e great pressure against
: oy than by the collapse and subsidences of the latter. The direction of
forees which would tend to produce a rupture from the purely eleva-
sO a
would not be resisted in the same manner.
4. On the Great Pterygotus (Seraphim) of Scotland, and other Species ;
by Mr. J. W. Saxrsr, (Proc. Brit :
This paper i m
Quarterly Geological Journal for 1855, describing some new and large
t Silurian rocks of the south of Scot-
land, ‘They were described under the name of Himanthopterus, and
Were supposed to differ from the published fragments of the great Ptery-
In the general
«ts and tail, in the want of
n th
appendages to the abdomen, as we
swimming feet, mandibles, maxill
. 0n further examination the closest#rese
eyes, as represented by
tical, and the group, as
small and moderate-sized
than any living species,
f six or eight feet! The collec-
418 Scientific Intelligence.
obtained by Mr. Banks, of Kington, and Messrs. Lightbody & Cockis, of
Ludlow, show us that Pterygotus was an elongate crustacean, with a com-
paratively small head and sessile compound eyes, few appendages, of
which the large chelate antenne are most remarkable, being a foot long
and only four-jointed,—the terminal joints forming a strong serrated
claw. The large mandibles were fully six inches long; the maxille,
either one or two pairs, with six-jointed palpi; and the great swimming
feet consisting of six joints, of which the terminal ones were modified as
for swimming, and the basal joints are great foliaceous expansions, which
pearly assisted, like the joints of the legs in Limulus, in mastication,
rom the explanations given by Mr. Huxley in the memoir above referred
to, there is a general resemblance both in form and structure to the small
Stomapod crustaceans, Mysis and Cuma, two minute forms, which must
be arranged very low down in the scale of Decapod crustaceans, and which
are also frequently ornamented with a simular sculpture to that of the
fossils. There is even a yet greater resemblance in form to the larve of
Lif thi
5. On the Bone Beds of the Upper Ludlow Rock, and the base of the
Old Red Sandstone ; by Sir R. I. Mcrcutsoy, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Au-
having yet been detected in more ancient strata in any part of Europe.
the lowest course of which at Kington contains many spines of Onchus,
wit Lingula cornea. This thin layer, and another softer one full of re-
mains of Pterygotus and two species of Pteraspis, are surmounted by
the blue or grey-hearted building-stone of Kington, with Pterygotus,
Geology. 419
and which have lately been accessible owing to the dry men rae
of micaceous brownish red sandstone and red marls, with true cornstone
Pterygotus. The fish remains consist of distinct jaws and teeth of con-
siderable size, of fin defences (Onchus), and the heads of ee
Lyellii, and a new species; to
occurs,
3
&
>
fe")
“—
4
ot
a
>
cA)
#
a
a
®
MS
~
3
a)
=
~
5
Ss
3
8
ne.
: ‘ snag Bt Ludlow roc
“tilestones,” if applied either to the top of the upper .
’ ‘ ight mislead; but if ap-
base of the Old Red Sandstone exclusively, ™ 6 two deposits, it may
420 Scientific Intelligence.
from the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, for which the name of
Stereognathus ooliticus had been proposed; and after a minute descrip-
sub-compressed : the outermost and innermost of the three hinder ones
are oblique, and converge towards the middle of the crown, being over-
lapped by the outermost and innermost of the three front cones. The three
molar teeth occupy the extent of 44 lines, or 1 centimeter; each tooth
being 3 millimeters in fore and aft extent, and nearly 4 millimeters in
transverse extent. er a comparison of these molars with the multi-
cuspic teeth of the rat, the hedgehog, the shrews and Galeopitheci, the
author showed that the proportions, numbers and arrangement of the
. the Dichodon cuspidatus, from the Upper Eocene of the Isle
of Wight and Hordwell, Hants ; by Prof. 5 hoe a tk Assoc
examinations of additional specimens of jaws and teeth of the Dichodon
cuspidatus, which he had received since his original Memoirs on that ex-
tinct animal in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. iv
(June, 1847), The first specimen described supplied the characters of the
last true molar tooth of the lower jaw, which had not been previously
nown. This tooth has six lobes, the additional posterior pair being less
than the normal ones, and more simple. The inner surface of the inner
lobe has an accessary cusp at the back part of its base, but not at the fore
a in the other lobes. The length of the last lower molar was nine
that of the first and second molars being each six lines. A speci-
men of the Dichodon cuspidatus from the Hordwell Sands, in the British
Museum, supplied the characters of the permanent incisors, canine, and
three anterior premolars of the upper jaw : all these teeth closely corres-
Geology. 421
pond in form with the corresponding deciduous teeth, but are of larger
size. Finally, a portion of the lower jaw of an age specimen of Dicho-
8. On a Range of Volcanic Islets to the Southeast of Japan; by
Mr. A. G. Finptay, (Proc. Brit. Assoc, August, 1856 ; th., No.
1503.)—The recent importance of our commercial relations with Japan,
n-high-
way between Nippon and the Bonin Islands of great interest. The dan-
being, by investigation, reduced to five or six rocky islets of very singular
character. The islands nearest to Japan, the Broken Ids, Falsisyo, the
ery e
south of this are, perhaps, Tibbit Island of 1844, then an island or reef
of pointed rocks, discovered by Coffin in 1825, afterwards announced as
r
31° 53’ N., long. 139° 59’ E., was discovered in the Dutch corvette, the
Koerier, August 24, 1849, and are of a very dangerous character. «ean-
hette Is] m ‘Jes further South, is doubtful. Smith Island,
hette Island, twenty three miles further <n Sik Bimith-of the Heber,
5°. The volcanic nature of these remarkable rocks. lying near the me-
Ndian of 140° E. indicates a continuation of those immense voleanic
Japanese island, and thence to the well-known range 0 spiracles in he
now quiescent. To the
n the two capitals of Ja-
422 Scientific Intelligence.
pan, Jeddo and Miako, which has been thrown open to the commerce of
the United States in 1854. The dreadful earthquake of 1854 at this
place was alluded to. It totally changed the character of the harbor of
Simoda, destroyed the fine city of Osaca, and injured Jeddo. The wave
which was caused by this upheaval of the land traversed the entire
breadth of the North Pacific in twelve hours and some few minutes, a
distance of between 4,000 and 5.000 miles, demonstrating the depth of
that ocean to be between two and three miles. The diagram illustrating
the paper showed the singular confusion before mentioned in the hydrog-
y of these small but important positions. The Bonin Islands lie to
the southward. ey have recently been made the subject of some un-
courteous disputation by the Americans as to the right of discovery and
ownership. There can be no doubt of their Japanese discovery, and are
the Arzbispo Islands of the early Spaniards. Next follows Captain Cof-
fin in 1824-5, who was believed to be an Englishman, but which is con-
9. On the New stone Formation of Pennsylvania ; by Isaac
Lea, (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., April, 1856.)—Mr. Lea read some
notes from a paper he is preparing for the Journal of the Academy on the
Red Sandstone Formation of Pennsylvania, and stated that he had, dur-
ing an excursion last summer, found in the dark shales of that Formation,’
near Pheenixville, on the Schuylkill, the tooth of a Sauroid Reptile which
he thus characterised.
EM
asin that genus, nor is itso large or so attenuate. The form, too, is more
compressed. It differs in size from the teeth of Bathygnathus borealis of
Leidy, from the New Red Sandstone of Nova Scotia, being smaller and
= enchant smooth edge and not 4
* Kirymua aculeus and Sou: dens,
OD aA a Be ee a la OS enim Dean ARE ets
Geology. 423
serrate edge. It is about the size and approaches the form of Prof.
Owen’s figure of Labyrinthodon, Plate 63 A. f. 2, of his Odontographia,
but it is more flattened.
Mr. Lea also stated that in the greenish and blackish shales of the
same locality he found two species of Posidonia, which genus is so char-
acteristic of this portion of the formation and existing in immense quan-
tities, As they seem to differ from that figured by Sir Charles Lyell, in
his Elementary Geology, as coming from the Oolitic coal shale of Rich-
mond, Virginia, Mr. Lea proposed the names of P. ovata and P. parva,
the first being about seven-twentieths of an inch in transverse diameter.
The latter is more rotund, and about three-twentieths of an inch in trans-
verse diameter, both being covered with numerous minute concentric cost
over the whole disc.
Near to this locality and superimposed, Mr. Lea obtained a specimen
of impure dull red limestone, which contained, on a partially decomposed
Surface, impressions | ting the apy f Foot-marks, somewhat like
Chelichnus Duncani, Owen, figured by Sir Wm. Jardine in his Ichnology,
for which Mr. Lea proposed the provisional name of Chelichnus Wyman-
ianus, after Professor Wyman, of Cambridge, Mass. : :
rom the same formation and locality were procured the impressions
lants, some of which belong to the Conifere. One of the cones was
h wide.
Permian) than any other which had comé under Mr. Lea’s notice. _
ri
which the fossils described in the following paper were obtained, occupies
aN extensive area of country near the head waters of the Missouri, chiefly
between the 46th and 49th parallels of north latitude, and the 100th,
and 108th degree of longitude west from Greenwich. According to the
barometrical measurements made by the party charged with the explora-
tion of the pro northern route of the Pacific railroad, this district
varies in its elevation from 1800 to 2700 feet above the present flow of
the tidal waye,*
* Some points not crossed by these explorers may be a few hundred feet higher.
River ; . . F, N, al Le J . 4
Sei, Philad viii, 101.) —That portion of the’ great Tertiary basin from
424 Scientific Intelligence.
saw this formation at two or three points above Fort Union. In ama
accompanying a highly interesting memoir on the geology of the Hud-
son’s Bay Territories, published recently by Mr. A. K. Isbister, in the
Journal of the Geological Society of London, a large area about the
sources of the Missouri, is colored as Tertiary, but so as to convey an I-
correct idea of the extent of country occupied by it. About the same
stone, surmounted along the west shore of that stream by Cretaceous
outliers. Between this and the Black Hills he brings up to Cannon-ball
River, from the White River basin, a continuous belt of Tertiary. West
of this he places a belt of Jurassic, and along the supposed position of
In all this Mr. Marcou is certainly mistaken, excepting in regard to the
i i a
far north by two or three hundred miles, as laid down by him.
Leaving for a future occasion all local and other details, we now pro-
pose to give a brief general sketch of the extent and boundaries, as far
as we can, of that portion of the great Tertiary lignite formation from
which our fossils were collected, with a few remarks upon its probable
age, and relations to the White River basin, as well as to the Cretaceous
formations upon which it reposes. :
Ascending the Missouri from Fort Pierre, we find on reaching @ point
five miles below Heart River, about the 47th parallel north, that the Cre-
taceous formations which are so conspicuous for many hundred mi
, Geology. 425
west branches of the Cheyenne. Cannon-ball river, Watahoo, and other
small tributaries, however, cut down to the Cretaceous beds some little dis-
tance back from the Missouri. On the east side of the Missouri the Ter-
iary is bounded on the south, nearly opposite the mouth of Cannon-ball
r
near the Missouri to about 102° of west longitude, where it: is inter-
rupted by a small tributary of the Cheyenne. West of this small stream,
the same range of Upper Cretaceous hills, known perhaps by other local
names, bears round to the northwest, crossing the head branches of the
Little Missouri so as to strike the Yellow-Stone river about ten miles,be-
low the mouth of Powder river; forming nearly all this distance the south
in this way, it must be borne ii mind that the Black Hills are laid down
on most of the published maps of this country as extending a long dis-
tance too far north.
Returning to the point near Heart river, from which we first set out,
we find on ascending the Missouri, that the Cretaceous strata again rise
localities the Prince of New Wied collected a nearly entire skeleton of
Sequence of their inclination to the east or northeast. On the nort
side of the Missouri, between it and Milk river, the higher portions of the
country back from the Missouri, are also composed of Tertiary beds
Th :
shell river, where they thin out on the summits of Cretaceous hills. The
ills, however, near the Missouri, between Milk and Muscleshell rivers,
also mainly Cretaceous, the Tertiary being for the most part worn
away by atmospheric agencies.
0 i Yellow-Stone, only Tertiary strata are seen from
Oe ees Powder i far it the mouth of the Big Horn.
ceived Tertiary fossils from intelligent traders, collected as far up the Big
Horn as one of its tributaries known as Little H
Some as far west on the Yellow-Stone as Rose river, we received a few
retaceous fossils. As to the limits of the Tertiary up Powder and
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856
54
426 Scientific Intelligence. *
Tongue rivers, we have no definite information. The traders say the
same kind of lignite beds seen along the Yellow-Stone, occur along the
banks of the former as much as one hundred and fifty miles above its
mouth.
The foregoing hasty sketch is given more with a view of showing the
extent of the country occupied by this great Tertiary lignite formation,
than with any hope of conveying a definite idea of its precise limits. [
it should prove to be only a part of the same extensive fresh water lig-
nite formation observed by Sir John Richardson on the Saskatchawan, of
which we have little doubt, then it is highly probable the lignite and
eoa) formations mentioned by Mr. Isbister as flanking the eastern slope of
the Rocky Mountains, in the form of a continuous belt from the Saskat-
poch.
For the most part, these deposits in Nebraska consist of beds of gray,
yellowish, whitish, and blue sand, sandstone, clay, &c., with alternating
sent a remarkable uniformity of character, and as may
following paper, are all, excepting a few land shells, referable to genera
usually found in fresh and brackish waters. It is an interesting fact that
Woolwich and Reading series of English geologists, as well as to those
the great Lignite formations of the southeast of France, would seem
to point to the lower Eocene as their position. Yet it may be possible
these resemblances have resulted from the action of precisely similar
causes at a somewhat later period.
It is a little remarkable that these formations differ in many respects
from those of the White River basin lying so near on the south. In the
first place they generally contain more sand, are usually characterized by
of lignite, and as yet have furnished no remains of Mammalia;
* We are under many obligations to Dr. Issac Lea, of Philadelphia, for the
privilege of com Re cach age 2 meer
Mectina oF eatin fossil species with analogous forms in his magnificent
;
Geology. 427
adual, not violent. We find that even while the Cretaceous conditions
still existed, (during the deposition of No. 5 of the series*) the approach-
ing close of that state of things, and the coming of the Tertiary era,
were foreshadowed by the introduction of Fasciolaria, Pleurotoma, and
Belemnitella, with many shells of other genera, quite as near in heir
We even know from the presence of a few remains of Lycopodia-
plants, and an occasional unbroken leaf of some Exogenous tree, that
d
meet with Ostrea, Corbula,-and Cerithiwm, mingled in the same bed wi
Melania, Paludina, Physa, Cyrena, &c., all of tertiary types; while a
little hicher in the series we find at some places only the remains of land
and Radienace Mollusca.
From the above facts,
the true chalk. We are by no means inclined, h
views of M. Alcide D’Orbigny, who regards all the Cretaceous formations
of the United States and Western Territories as referable to a later epoch
than the Green Sand, as the next succeeding formation below that of which
we have just been speaking, (No. 4 of the series), is characte n
country having been mingled together and described as if they occurred
be
previously stated, near the
are not seen for a long distance below oe r
view, They consist of the upper two members of the series (No. 5 an
No. 4) which, in consequence ;
nse higher and higher as we ascend the river, ak!
close to the Missouri, between Milk and Muscleshell riv oy ge
formations. Some four or five miles below the mouth of Muscleshe
* For a secti i ks of this country, see a paper by James Hall and F. B.
Meek in Gar Manabe yeiigets aiednd Sci. vol. 5, New Series. Likewise a paper
by F.B. Meek and F. V. Hayden in Proceed. Acad, Nat. Sci. Philad, March, 1856.
428 Scientific Intelligence.
river, a lower rock, a sandstone, rises above the-water level. This is prob-
ably No. 1 of the series, No. 2 and No. 8 not being represented here, It
is worthy of note that out of two species of Mactra, two of Tellina, two
of Inoceramus, one of Pholadomya, two of Natica, and one Baculite,
found in this rock, not one is known to occur in any of the higher forma-
tions, and some of these species are not unlike Weocomian forms.
In consequence of the increasing inclination of the strata, this last men-
_ tioned sandstone rises in the vicinity of North Mountain river as much as
250 feet above the Missouri. Here, or near this, begins a wild and deso-
late region, known as the Mauvaises Terres or Bad Lands of the Judith.
At various places in these Bad Lands a sandstone similar to No. 1 was
some of these beds, one or two species of Unio, one or more of Cycias
or Cyrena, and a few crushed specimens of Gasteropoda like Paludina
and Melania. From these facts, we are strongly inclined to think with
Prof. Leidy, that there may be here, at the base of the Cretaceous system,
a fresh-water formation like the Wealden. Inasmuch, however, as there
certainly are some outliers of fresh-water Tertiary in these Bad Lands, we
would suggest that it is barely possible these remains may belong to that
epoch, though the shells appear to be all distinct species from those found
in the Tertiary at all the other localities in this region.
e remember seeing in 1853, between the mouth of Big Sioux and
Platte rivers on the Missouri, some exposures very similar to those of the
Bad Lands of the Judith, excepting that there appeared to be no beds of
Lignite. We saw no ossils in these beds, but were at that time impr
with the opinion that they belonged to the lower part of No. 1, which is
nse follow descriptions of species: From Fort Union, Paludina Leai}
pees C. fragilis, C. sub-
re
nion, Bulimus? teres, B.? vermicul mna tenui-
2 ulus, Li
costa, Physa Nebrascensis, Planorbis umbilicatus, Velletia (Ancylt )
minuta, Paludina retusa, Valvata parvula, Melania minutula.—Zen miles
" i foregoing remarks are based upon the observations and collections of Dr.
;
;
:
)
;
;
Botany and Zoology. 429
with Ostrea subtrigonalis Evans and Shumard, also Melania, Paludina,
and other. fresh-water shells, Corbula subtrigonalis, C. perundata.—/ort
Clark, Corbula mactriformis (associated with Melania, Paludina, ete.,)
Bulimus Limneiformis, B. Nebrascensis, Paludina multilineata, P. pecu-
liaris—Little Horn River, Planorbis couvolutus—Yellow-Stone River,
30 miles above the mouth, Melania Anthonyi—Vear headwaters of Little
Missouri, Cerithium Nebrascencis. | ,
III. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
1. Alph. DeCandolle: Géographie Botanique raisonnée, ou Exposition
des Faites principaux et des Lois concernant la Distribution Géograph-
igue des Plantes de U Hpoque Actuelle. Paris and Geneva, 2 vols. 8vo,
1855.—Pressing engagements have prevented the fulfilment of our prom-
ise to make a detailed examination of this work. We exceedingly regret
this; for the Géographie Botanique of DeCandolle is not only one of the
most important works of our day, but one which addresses and will
greatly interest, a much broader circle of scientific readers than any
other modern production of a botanical author. It is, and probably long
will be, the standard treatise upon a wide class of questions, highly and
almost equally interesting to the botanist, the zoologist, the geologist, the
2
Bs some.
aes of the work, and involves occasional repetitions ; but it would not
easy to collocate well and clearly so vast an amount of materials in
any better way. Pee :
The first Book is occupied with some preliminary considerations upon
the way in which temperature, light, and moisture act upon plants. Its
three chapters treat of the relations of plants to surrounding physical
conditions, and especially to heat and light ; and contain the author's
‘ ~
430 Scientific Intelligence.
happy distinction between the temperatures actually operative in vegeta-
tion, and those which (being below the freezing point, dsc.) are altogether
null for vegetation, and ought to be eliminated from the tables of mean
temperature, when these are viewed in relation to the Northern and
Southern geographical range of species.
n 2, Geographical Botany, or the study of species, genera, and
seed, whether affording facilities to dispersion or not. Chap. 8 considers
the changes which may have taken place in the habitation of species,
and discusses with great fullness the whole subject of naturalization, the
obstacles in the way, the causes and means of transport, and the inter-
changes which have been effected between the New and the Old Worlds.
ble origin of the existing species; and brings
far to prove the geological antiquity of the greater part of existing
species ; and that their creation was probably successive. Chap. 12 treats
: 2 a aE limits, the distribution of species within the area of the
i
* It is singular that M. De Candolle should be so slow to abandon the idea that the
aborigines of Carolina, or any other part of North America cultivated or knew any-
of the em which, if Raleig obtained them in Carolina, were certainly 1m-
rted thi ut, though our aborigines had no potatoes, they had ipkine oF
I ashes and beans, which all writers upon the hi , they farts
overlooked, except the late Dr. Harris. e history of cultivated p have
Botany and Zoology. 431
ison of different countries in respect to those natural orders which
abound most in species; and Chap. 23, as regards their most characteristic
natural families. Chap. 24, on the variety of vegetable forms in different
countries and in the world at large, i.e. the probable number of species ;
e proportion of genera to species, and of orders to genera and species,
Chap. 25, the division of the earth’s surface into natural botanical regions.
Chap. 26, sketch of the vegetation of different countries in respect to the
probable origin of their existing species, &c.
The Fourth Book, of a single brief chapter, consists merely of a sum-
mary of the author's general conclusions. We give these entire, for con-
venience availing ourselves of a translation in Hooker's Journal of Botany.*
“The plants now inhabiting the globe have survived many changes,
geological, geographical, and, latterly, historical. The history of their
distribution is hence intimately connected with that of the whole vege-
¥
d
table kingdom.
To explain existing facts, it is fortunately unnecessary to adopt any
conclusion upon the most obscure hypotheses of Cosmogony and Palz-
e 3)
=
Qu
@
a
2,
@
S
2
(op)
an
g
Rs
5
Qu
E
@
&
2
=
g
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2.
5
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es.
i
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i
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=
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o
°
o
®
re]
o
5
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B
3
fas)
+
=
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a)
3
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+O
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fo?)
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4 ’ , * d
aternary, (that which preceded the existence of man in Europe, an
which rari the latest elevation of the Alps), has lasted many thou-
years, during which important geographical and physical changes
of the globe have suffered no change, or have been exposed to a different
series of changes.
“Thus the a facts of Geology and Paleontology, reduced to the
Most general and incontestible, suffice to explain the facts of Botanical
Geogr aphy, or at least to indicate the nature of the explanation, which it
Tequires the progress of many sciences to complete. |
SPOILS peers a RET REPT ee ON ae ee ee Og a Se | eee Tee Te EE ren Pp SSR de ie
i i ice of De Can-
# We take this occasion to commend to our readers the detailed notice o} an
dolle’s work, given last spring, and summer, in a series of the numbers of Hooker's
Journal. It comprises a careful abstract of these volumes, and a critical commentary
Upon man ing i original remarks.
have affected Europe and some neighboring countries, whilst other regions ~
432 Scientific Intelligence.
“The most numerous, the most important, and often the most anomas
lous facts in the existing distribution of plants, are explained by the ope-
ration of causes anterior to those now in operation, or by the joint opera-
tion of these and of still more ancient causes, sometimes of such as are
primitive (connected with the earliest condition of the planet). The
ary part. I have shown that in starting from an original fact, which it
country, and ata certain time, we ought to be able, and sometimes are
y
able, to explain the following facts, chiefly by causes that operated pre-
vious to our own epoch :—l, the very unequal areas occupied by Nat-
_ “The only phenomena explicable by existing circumstances, are—I, the
limitation of species, and consequently of genera and families, in every
country wher p
respectively to physicists and meteorologists, to geographers, to geologists,
ists, and to
view, viz: that the embryo is formed of (or in) the extremity of the pollen-
tube,—has at length been definitely abandoned, both by its author, and —
Botany and Zoology. 433
a ciate Ci J ai aaa daa ately aa ae
~
~
S
Qu
&
fo
s
j=]
or)
fas)
Qu
_
=]
iS)
2
%
ro)
ms
od
o
x
[oi
oo
it
i)
3
o
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)
i=]
=}
8
EC)
3
TM
°o
S
=
Ss
A
=
2
ey
oO
i
if we rightly understand the statement, Dr. Radlkofer maintains that
itis not the corpuscle or vesicle contiguous to the pollen-tube, but a second
searches, .G.
3. Bentham, Notes on Loganiacee, (in Journal of the Proceedings of
the Linnean Society, No. 2.)—A most judicious and thorough revision
; of this group of Rubiacee with a free ovary, or “a sort of artificial offset
from that family,” which it becomes necessary in practice to separate.
We cite a portion of the introductory remarks, for the special benefit of
hose who maintain that families, genera, d&ec., are as really and strictly
limited in nature as they are in our systems, i. e., when our systems are as
Perfect as they practically can be.
“Our natural orders, with all the improvements they have received
Po SE Ce EE RS mee a TA age
E
=|
B
:
i
=a
‘i
a
5
3
=
g
B.
B
:
‘g
74
i
F
me one or two which may offer an exceptional character
OF anomalous structure, indicating some slight approach to other groups,
Yes we cannot have the least hesitation as to where to draw the line of
de tion, The Himalayan Megacarpeas, although polyandrous, are
_ Still decidedly Cruciferous, not Capparideous. The distinction between
ugh Copaifera and Connarus be really more gradual,
: , SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO, 66,—NOV., 1856,
: 55
434 Scientific Intelligence.
yet it is still between those two genera that the limits are placed by uni-
versal consent; so are they as irrevocably fixed between the closely
allied genera Teucrium and Vitex, which form the connecting link be-
tween Labiate and Verbenaceew. The vast orders of Umbellifere and
cences of Horsfieldia and some others in the former, and of Xanthiwm in
the latter, which at first sight disguise their characters. The few species
of Apostasiew are but anomalous Orchidee, rather explaining their struc-
ture than connecting them with any particular order. Cyperacew and
Graminee retain their typical structure through all the singular modifi-
cations hitherto observed.
“There are other orders again, even amongst the most numerous in
nd
pen and others again propose uniting more or less of these
grou h Malvacee. The Memecylee are in the eyes of some botanists
one or two intermediate families between Melastomacee and ,
whilst for others they are but a tribe of the former. So it is with the
connecting groups between Myrtaceae and Passifloree, between the latter
and Cucurbitacee, &c. Amongst some of the largest and most univer-
sally oo Monopetalous orders the connexion is still more gradual,
and the limits proposed more arbitrary. There can be no doubt that
Rubiacew, Apocynee, Gentianew, and Scrophularinee are large independ-
ent orders, indicated in nature, yet those genera now amalgamated under
the name of Logamiacee bind them so firmly together, that some of them
will be found even more closely allied to certain others of each of the
above orders respectively than they are to each other. On the other side,
Scrophularinee themselves pass imperceptibly into Solanee, Bignoniacee
or Convolvulacee, and through these into several others.
Since the meta hor of a chain or linear series has been found inade-
quate for the illustration of the connexion of the natural groups, that o!
mb te area or map has been more generally resorted to. In
gm and Myrtacee, the Myrtacee and Passifloree, these again an
Cucurbitacee, would not be separated by any clear open space, but
by a tract still wooded, but of less density, in which here and there the
_ be so thinly scattered as almost to break the connexion.
4 ae
3
5
a
"
ty
Botany and Zoology. 435
would be dotted over with solitary trees or small clusters representing our
Loganiacee. Many of these may be very near to the surrounding w
projecting parcels annexed to the adjoining woods
n a careful examination, it will be found that almost the whole of the
Loganiacee lie very near to some part or other of the vast field of Rubz-
acee, although by their free ovary they are absolutely and (with very few
another is the suppression of the genus Jgnatia, it being proved to ha
been founded on the blossoms of the Rubiaceous genus Posoquerva and
e seed of a Strychnos. i
4. The Flowers of the Pea-Nut (Arachis Hypogea, L.)—Mr. BEN-
THAM authorises us to state that the views formerly published by him
attributing to Arachis two very distinct kinds o flowers,—namely,
achlamydeous and fertile, the other complete but sterile,
fied are incorrect. The mistake here acknowldged was first pointed out.
by Hugh M. Neisler, Esq., last year, in this Journal (vol. 19, 2nd ser., p.
212, March, 1855). Mr. Neisler, who has enjoyed the best i AO
of studying the living and fruitful plant in a, where it is cultivat
on that “the flowers of Arachis hypo-
In gardens, came to the conclusi
ga are all petal-bearing and all fertile.
found fecundated ovaries very
from the base of the style in the unopen
yet after some time I succeeded in tracing, 4s Mr, Neisler has done in
436 Scientific [ntelligence.
Arachis, the change from the one to the other. The moment the style
breaks off, the lower fragment curves back, and forms at the end of it
what I always took for a thickened stigmatic surface ;. but it is a mere
¢allosity which, when examined under the microscope, ‘shows no stigmatic
papilla. Loth as I am to be convinced of so gross an error, I must beg
of you to do amende leases for me to Mr. Neisler in any way you may
think proper.”—We are still inclined to think, but without a fresh exam-
ination, that the more fruitful flowers of Stylo santhes and Lespedeza,
though similar to the others in structure, are commonly pronecionil
fertilized in the bud, as they are in Jmpatiens and many other plants, in
fonble however, the fully-developed blossoms ee ot fruitful bees
vorab)
5. Mar ahsk ons Brasiliensis ; = 16 and 17, 1856.—This impe
Flora i is now 7 carried on with such spirit that this new and large oat ‘ot
nt
aor the sis of Prof. Miquel, of Amsterdam. ‘It comprises first the
Prim hese are insignificant both in number and antenest in the
from the Styracacew, and some Brazilian species are noticed W
as few as five stamens.—Von Martius himself has illustrated three
able genera incerte sedis, n namely, Diclidanthera and Moutabea, which
he develops the aftinities of with eat acuteness, and regards as a Monde
petalous, regular, and generally rcapebae form of Polygalacee ; and
Hornschuchia, which, with all its anomalies, he refers to the Lardizabalew.
tees present part is illustrated by 50 plates, besides two Tabula aog!
mice,
6. L. R. Tulasne: Monographia Monimiacearum. Paris, 1855;
163, tab. 10—An admirable memoir, contributed to the 2886 Me
Museum @ Histoire Naturelle, vol. 8, illustrating a a family of plants,
long of obscure affinity. These ‘for the most part been map ni
Botany and Zoology. 437
Tulasne contends for the nye tr with the former, relying on the general
sss of the flowers, the perigynous insertion, and the opposite
es. Dr. Hooker, lowing Lindley, apparently with more reason,
hips the other view oa ng higher importance to the albuminous
: liferous, and which, when founded, was ve naturally referred to the
Schizandree by Dr. Wight. The plates of this memoir, mostly oe
by the author’s accomplished brother, are truly admirable.
7. Chloris Andina: Essai dune Flore de la Region Alpine ie Cor-
. dilléres de ? Amerique du Sud ; par H. A. Wevpe1t, M.D., etc. Paris :
livr. 1-4, 4to, tab. 1-26.—This belongs to the botanical part of the pub-
lications of the Expedition = Count Castelnau,—an expedition made
from Rio de Janeiro to — and then from Lima, to ase Dr. Wed-
sive edition of his excellent Manual. It is just such m as
herborizers and young Botanists, of the region indicated, have long
needed and earnestly desired. The student is not only find in it,
8 exact description of all the known plants belonging to the “ cooler-
temperate vegetation” of the Union, but he'finds them arranged in ac-
cordance with the principles of the most approved Natural Method,—sys-
tematically exhibiting the essential characters, and structural affinities, of
the multiform Groups and Families. An artificial Key to the Natural
Orders is also prefixed, by which the generic name of each plant and
its place in the system may be readily ascertained. “
as a positive peat ma > nse
ical herborizer, to know that he possesses a work in whic %
tainly 8 find a reliable account of every indigenous and naturalized plant
_ Within the designated geographical limits ; and with such an aidat com-
mand no young person properly instruct ted, or animated by the spirit
ee Pe ee ne ne ee OS ee leew
438 Scientific Intelligence.
becoming an American citizen, should be held excusable for continuing in
ignorance of the vegetation around hi
Th
telligent investigators of Plants within the limits referred to: butit ought,
also,—in connection with the Botanical Z'ext-Book, and elementary Lessons,
by the same author—to be introduced into every well-ordered seminary
by all means including the common schools.) of the same region.
With such class books, in place of the superficial and defective compila-
tions heretofore too generally employed, a just conception of the science
ould soon supercede the prevalent smattering of uncouth terms destitute
of ideas; and a proper foundation would be laid in the inquiring minds
of youth for a future superstructure of true Botanical knowledge. —
A reform of this character is a consummation devoutly to be wished.
It is, indeed, high time that the intellect of “ Young America,”—in eve
educational department—should be placed on the right track at the start,
and be so developed, in its progress, as to eschew the vulgar errors and
exploded fallacies of the past. The morning of life is too short, and too
precious to be wasted in acquiring ideas that are obsolete, and which,
of necessity, must be afterward unlearned, or discarde
valuable and most desirable compendium of the Botany of our whok F
country. While it would meet an urgent present want, it would serve as
second, the #
desideratum will speedily be supplied ? W. D.
9. Report on the present State of our Knowledge of the Mollusca of
: soc.
Ath., No. 1504.)—As many of the shells of California tend to Sitka,
nd some even to the Shantar Islands, while the shells of the @ulf of
California belong to the Fauna of Panama and Ecuador, this report em-
braces the shells of the whole of the west coast of North America. The
causes of error, both in ascertaining the habitat and in identifying the
species of mollusks, were pointed out. An historical account was giv
of all the known collectors in the district, pointing out the degree of au-
thority attached to each, with a list of species, references, synonyms, &c.
Special attention had been paid to the minuter shells of the Gulf, among
which were pointed out several new an interesting forms. The large
multitudes of shells from that district which had been lately sent to this
country had brought to light many interesting points concerning the
variations in particular species. In the genus Czecum, for instance,
five species had been made out of different stages of growth in the same
shell. All the known shells of which the exact locality was ascertai
had been tabulated in columns, representing the distribution of the spe
cies, and arranged zoologically. About 800 species are known from the
)
:
4
:
Botany and Zoology. 439
Gulf, and 625 from Panama, of which 218 are already known to be
common to the two—eighty-nine being common to the Gulf and South
America and twenty-three to the Gallapagos, which islands have ver
little in common with South America, more with Panama, and some little
with the Indo-Pacific province. The Proboscidifera were found much
more local than the rest of the Gasteropods, and these than the Bivalves,
the spawn of which latter are borne through wide ranges by the currents.
The Fauna of Upper California, as shown by the collections of Mr. Nut-
tall and the United States Exploring Expedition, are quite distinct from
those of the Gulf; scarcely a score of species, and those in very limited
numbers, are found in common. Very little is accurately known of the
Fauna of the Peninsula. The shells on the Gulf side are, however,
mainly Panamic, on the Pacific side, Californian. Scarcely a single spe-
cies is common to West America and Polynesia, while not a few appear
identical with West Indian forms, especially in the Gulf. Several forms
reappear on the Gambia coast. A very few reach Britain, chiefly nest-
10. On the Vital Powers of the Spongiadee ; by Mr. Bowerzgank, (Proc.
pe Brit. Assoc.; August, 1856 ; Ath., No.1505.)—The greater portion of these
observations were made on a new species of sponge, of a deep orange
color, that abounds on the rocks in the vicinity of Tenby between high
and low water marks, and which he has named Hymeniacidon caruncula,
He found that while in a state of repose oscula could rarely be seen in
the open state, but immediately after being placed in fresh sea-water these
organs were very shortly fully expanded, and streams of water were
ejected from them with considerable force; this action continued for a
longer or shorter period at the will of the i its termination
tenewal by a supply of fresh cold sea-water, and especially 1 poured on
to the sponge with some degree of force. The action of the oscula were
hot simultaneous in all parts of the same specimen, and it frequently oc-
cavity, furnished abundantly with membranes covered with a coat of sar-
‘Similar in every respect to the muc
o.
ae
zi
‘.
440 Scientific Intelligence.
the higher seats and performing for the sponge precisely the same
functions that are exerted from Actinophrys Sol upwards, through every
gradation of animal existence, to man and the rest of the. most elabo-
rately constructed animals. This extraordinary substance, designated in
Actinophrys Sol as sarcode by Kélliker, and in the higher animals
known by anatomists as the mucous lining of the intestines, is apparently
gan of very much more importance in the process of digestion than
has been generally conceived. In the Spongiade there is every reason:
to believe that the imbibition of the molecules by this substance is pre-
cisely in the manner described by Kolliker in Actinophrys Sol,—and
from the a of the mucous membranes of animals - of every
class, the author feels persuaded that the mucous lining in such an
= sal: the homoge of the sarcode in the Actinophrys Sol and in
-_ Garis _— J. E. Gavir exhibited to the American Associa-
tion at Albany a vase containing young gar-pikes 4 to 6 inches long from
Lake Ontario, which called forth some remarks from Prof. Agas assi de The
bratile motion. The vertebral column was continued in it quite to its
extremity. These young fishes therefore were essentially indentical in
their tails with the Palzeozoie species, and in one genus of the Old Red
Sandstone, named Glypticus, as stated by Prof. Agassiz, the tail was simi-
lar in the form of the lobes. This supernumerary lobe disappears as
fish grows “ Prof. Agassiz observed that this was among the —_
facts which show that the order of succession of animals in past time
coheed now in the development of individuals. He also remarked .
t that these Ganoid fishes resemble reptiles in the power of moving
the h head on the back bone (owing to the ball and socket aoe the
vertebra), and in the quasi tail.
IV. ASTRONOMY,
f: ein Planets.—The number of asteroidal planets now known is
Sorty-tw
Har ioeide (40) was discovered Mch. 81, 1856, by Mr. Hermann Gold-
schmidt, at Paris. In apparent brightness it equaled a star of the ¢ 0-1 Oth
agnitude.
The following elements of this planet . F. Pa
Bi ie g is planet are computed by Mr. C. F. Pape,
Epoch, 1856, safe i ae = . =
Mean anomaly, 8’
Long. of eco . - oe 45 ‘ 3 . Eqnx.
node, - 93 8 176 t Tan. 0, 1856.
Sialination: - - ie Saas Xcel
Angle of excentricity, — - ail iy sg ©
- Semi-axis major, - - 0°355603
Log. mean daily motion, - 3°016603
[Astr, Nach., No. 1022.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 44]
- 2. Daphne (41) was discovered May 22, 1856, by H. Goldschmidt, at
Paris. It was then about as bright as a star of 11-12th magnitude.
3. [sis (42) was discovered May 23, 1856, by Mr. Pogson, first Assistant
at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, Eng. It was then rather brighter
than a star of the 10th magnitude.
From the observations of May 28th and June 1st at Oxford and June
9th at Berlin, Mr. C. F. Pape has computed the following elements:
Epoch, 1856, June 9,52295, M. T. Berl.
- 9
Mean anomaly, - 817° 19219
Long. of perihelion, - - $10 35 34 ‘9 toa Eqnx.
“ase, nods, - 85 13 31 ‘3 { Jan. 0, 1856.
~ Inclination, = - - - 8 8 86 6
~ Angie of excentricity, = - 745 47 3
. Semi-axis major, - - 0°359801
Log. mean daily motion, - - $:01030
6
[ Astr. Nach., No. 1081.
V. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
=e ion fr And if there were not a large number from
Seas € am Cavech ale of effort and liberality on the part
of the Albanians, or of free passages offered by the steamships and packets
Vice-President ; Prof, Joun LeConre of South Carolina, General Sec-
retary; and Prof, J. Lovertne, of Cambridge, was continued as Perma~
nent Secretary.
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856.
56
442 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
In addition to the usual sessions of the Association there were two
exercises of extraordinary character, and indeed of extraordinary interest
for the country. On Wednesday, the 27th, the inauguration of the State
- Hall, have a more than American importance.
The oreat address of the occasion was delivered by Prof. Agassiz, in
which he ably sustained the view, that “nature can only be the work of
an intellectual Being,—of Mind,—of an Individual God.” Remarks were
also made by Professors Dewey and Hitchcock, on the history of geo-
tion of Religion with Science.
A merited tribute was paid to the memory of the Dr. T. Romeyn Beck,
of Albany and resolutions of respect to his memory were passed by
silently rising. '
On the following day, Thursday, there was the inauguration 0 the
Dudley Observatory when Hon. Edward Everett delivered to an audience
of five thousand, an oration of great power, admirably adapted to the
occasion.
The Dudley Observatory originated in the munificence of Mrs. Dudley
of Albany, lady of the late Charles E. Dudley of that city, ingen
ae : “ite
uring the meet dley
was read announcing the additional gift of $50,000 to the Observatory
fund towards which Mrs. Dudley efore given $25,000. Ss
completion of the Observatory and the ordering of its instruments, part
passage on Galileo.
Ga.ite0.— On this great name, my Friends, assembled as we are to
dedicate a temple to instrumental astronomy, we may well pause for @
moment.
“There is much, in every way, in the city of Florence to excite the curi-
osity, to kindle the imagination, and to gratify the taste. Sheltered on
the north by the vine-clad hills of Fiesole, hes cyclopean walls cary
back the antiquary to ages before the Roman, before the Etruscan power,
the flowery city (Fiorenza) covers the sunny banks of the Arno with its
* Since the adjournment of the Association we | ift towards the
Observatory of $10,000 by T. W. Oleott, Esq., of presen oF ae
has in charge the ee
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443
raohs coéval with Joseph, and Etruscan Lucumons that swayed Italy
_ fore the Romans; libraries stored with the choicest texts of ancient lit-
memory, and the heart, there was none to which I more frequently gave
a meditative hour during a year’s residence, than to the spot where Gal-
which I gazed with greater reverence, than I did upon the modest man-
sion at Arcetri, villa at once and prison, in which that venerable sage, by
command of the Inquisition, passed the sad closing years of his life.
The beloved daughter on whom he had depended to smooth his passage
Ahime! quegli occhi si son fatti oscuri,
Che vider pid di tutti i tempi antichi,
ey E luce fur dei secoli futuri.
That was the house, ‘where,’ says Milton (another of those of whom
the world was not worthy), * I found and visited the famous Galileo,
grown old—a prisoner to the Inquisition, for thinking on astronomy oth-
0
2] 6
wonders of ancient and modern art, statues and paintings,
ts,—the admiration and the delight of ages,—there was nothing
afew feet in length,—the work of his own hands,—that very ‘optic
glass,’ through which the ‘Tuscan Artist’ viewed the moon, N
‘At evening, from the top of Fiesole,
Or in Val d’Arno, to descry new % ;
Rivers, or mountains, in her spotty globe.
_ That poor little spy-glass (for it is scarcely more) throu
tan eye first distinctly beheld the surface of the moon
Saturn—first penetrated the dusky depths of the heavens—first pierced
the clouds of visual error, which, from the creation of the world, involved
*
the system of the Universe. ~
* Prose Works, vol. i, p. 213.
444 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
“There are occasions in life in which a great mind lives years of rapt
enjoyment in a moment, I can fancy the emotions of Galileo, when
first raising the newly-constructed telescope to. the heavens, he saw ful-
filled the grand prophecy of Copernicus, and beheld the planet Venus
crescent like the moon. It was such another moment as that when the
immortal printers of Mentz and Strasburg received the first copy of the
Bible into their hands, the work of their divine art; like that when Co-
lumbus, through the gray dawn of the 12th of October, 1492, (Coper-
nicus, at the age of eighteen, was then a student at Cracow), beheld the
shores of San Salvador; like that when the law of gravitation first re-
vealed itself to the intellect of Newton; like that when Franklin saw
by the stiffening fibers of the hempen cord of his kite, that he held the
meeting. Abstracts are not here published, unless contributed by the
authors, as we hold that an author should have the responsibility of pre-
senting his own views in a Scientific Journal,
The Elements of Potential Arithmetic; by Prof. Benjamin Peirce.
On the N ext Appearance of the Periodical Comet of thirteen years; by Dr. Peters.
= mre in or Atmosphere; by E. N. Horsford,
n a Fossible Modification of the method ini sity of the
earth; by Stephen Alexander, ee
TE a oui and Calculation of the results of a general process of causation; by
the Law of Human Mortality ; by C. F. M’Co
meee ho Discussion of the motion of a body sissies the action of central forces;
by eirce.
_ On Acoustics as applied to public buildings: by Prof
Notes on the Progress made in the Co. arte ay bree les for the tides
of the Coast of the United States ; by A. D. te Ha upalecarc
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445
On the: History : — abst of the instruments known as rotascopes, gyroscopes,
W.B.R
On Various Oyelones or Pda a of the North Pacific Ocean, with a chart show-
ing their course of progression; By W. OC. Redfield.
On the Modificatlons of the Sesquioxy d of Chromium ; by E. a epeoh
On the Relative Age of the different portions of the moon’s surface, and the catas-
— to which ore rtion seems to have rua san pe pc ‘Stephen sales.
a New of measuring celestial y
romans cotidal ines of div and semid dorcnal oe of the Coast of the
United States on the Gulf of Mexico; by A. D. Bache.
A Report on the New rinse of ‘Obeartation now in use at the Cincinnati Obser-
: : it
i
:
je
ao
°
5
=
. New Method of ri ig ht ascension, as to its limit of wef
2. New Method of ees as to its limit of accuracy.,
3. New Method of determining personal “e ation and personal error.
4, New Method of wettihig instrumen
oa
Remarks on Ozo mueue sake Wi
On the Meridian ‘Toatrauhene of the Dudle ey Oler ry; by B. A. Gould.
rrangement Sia = ey ohio whisk seem to confirm the
i
s to determine ahs cause of the increase of Sandy Hook,
Tot: b or cer a for the ‘iciaheeidnets on harbor encroachments of New
or’
‘ Osby Aavantages of obse erving a lunar gh sre of a limb, in transits, for de-
__ termining the difference of longitude; by D
— to the Paper ablished i in the Providence Proceedings, on the secular
ion etic declination in i Atlantic and Gulf Coast of the United
tes, frome observations in the 17th, 18th, 19th phon under permission of the
; s A. Sch it,
iscussion of the Se ilar variation of magnetic inclination in the Northeastern
States, communicated under + percitiekin of the Superintendent and authority of the
rtmen h . Schott.
Discussion of the terrestrial ce oa elements for the United States, from obser-
raged . Bache a
b . E. Hilgard.
sig “ina Stars, and the pence hag origin of the forms of cakcatats
nebuiss by Ste a Bees nder,
On the Sonat of air bubbles by drops falling on the surface of water, etc.;
by Wiliam @ Ts. ts
On the Results of the United ae Astronomical con sere to Chili, for the
determination of the solar parallax; by B. A. Gou 4
= I An Account of a large barometer in the al of the “Smnitheonian Institution; by
en
4 On a Method of determining the latitude of a place, from = ahi times
_ When two he wn stars arrive at the same altitude; by W. Chauv
On the Plan of Reduction of the Meteorological “Obnerevkistie “reported to the
i Smithsonian 1 Tnetiuton, oes ted by the adi be sy James H. Coffi
: oe e Asteroids; by Dr. Bri
: pele Presses Mortality, dite palated’ ‘or Fw feral of age; accompa-
| a ie okie chat tae ton tion He life, present oto of life annu-
ities, and other very Fico sovelviegy life Sen es from return ulation
Be olation ; by E. B. Elliott
On tie inne "4 Aeeurary pe reais by € ugmenting the number of
446 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
On the oe of satellites revolving in narrow orbits; by Daniel Vaughan.
Researches the ammonia-cobalt bases; by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs and Dr. F. A.
Gen ze
On the Production of Rotary Currents in air and other gases, with a special illus-
ssidaed ot a rotary current rendered luminous by flame and incandescent charcoal ;
r. D. B. Rei
On the Altitu de and Physical Structure of the Appalachian Fg in the Region
of the Black Mountains in North Carolin om a with those of the White
Mountains in New Hampshire; by :
e; by A. Guyot
On Some Experiments on visual direction ; by John Brocklesby.
n the Phenomena of the discharge of ordinary electricity : 2 —— Henry.
Redetermination of the atomic weight of lithium ; by J. W
Account of the Typhoon of October 28, 1854, t the Bonin Tolande: witha —
of its barometric curve, and fetes s of other ne by Jobn Rogers, ‘om. U,
‘avy: Communicated by W ih e
beak and Tornado vert ; by W. C. Redfield.
Mot’ em of a Body As solid ‘of seectalite: when the force is directed towards
a og upon "the a ; by hinjeahin Peirce.
vie Physical Peculiarities of Comets; by Stephen Alexande er.
imple Method o of “ double altitudes”
; he seg tg a or a a planet, for the change of declination between the observa-
ions; by
On the annual daration of sunlight on the earth in different latitudes; by L. WwW.
Ruineavbies concerning the Comets of 1783 and 1793; by Dr. Peters.
The Fundamental numeric series, and awe of radiating parts, reduced to a
simple Ps gi siapieal idea; by Dr. T.
Note on the Rotation of a rigid body ; =i J. B. Cherriman
On the “Iuteriestadion of some Cases of apparent geometric discontinuity ; by J.
B. Cherriman.
n the Forms of the Atoms of the simple substances of chemistry, as indicated
by ive atomic Le sr a Alexander ;
Meteo i t Portsmouth,
o 7 Pes oa te during the epidemic of 1855 a
On Modification of Noremburg’s Apparatus by about 4 or 5 minutes; by
‘Seton n Smi
On the waters of the St. La d Hunt.
On eae Faas "ck wrence an the we — by T. Sterry
by E. B.
Report on the Observatory of of Toronto: <9 J. B, Cherriman
Results of a Series of Meteo rological Observations made at New York son
from 1825 to 1850 inclusive ; “ Franklin B. es e
on the Hes of the aneroid barometer; by A. Guyot. a
periments on t os nozal of bh
eae ate: Beta -_ of blowing apparatus, made at the Smithsonian
Il. Section of Natural History and Geology.
On the Volcanic Phenomena of a7 and Mauna Loa; and on the rr
F, Winslow. :
:b Winchell. “ty
Parallelism of fo Formations in Nova-Scotia, with those of other parts of
America; by J. W. Dawson. ‘
ke of ei ine aa of ed: by W of the altered rocks of Eastern Massacht
ossils recently discovered ; b; e
Oni Carboniferous Repiles ; iia
oat Trias Systems of North Gsrctinta by Ebenezer Emm 4
escription of the Boundary Line betw nthe United. States and :
tural resources,
wean with General Notices te the to h
etc. of the country naiicenh ft tee . gels,
: Miscellaneous Intelligence. 447
Some Points in the Geology of the Upper Mississippi Valley; by James Hall.
i al the el of Development in the Geological History o. North America ; by
es D. Dan
“On| the Geological Position of the Fossil Elephant of North America; by J. W.
oster.
On the Geology of the Broadtop Coal Region in Central Pennsylvania; by J. P.
-" a the progrepny of the western portion of the United States, with a map; by
illiam P, Bla
Description o a Fossil Shell found in the Sandstone of the Connecticut River
Valley; by E. Hitchcock.
Sketch of the Progress of Geology in Alabama; by Michael Tuomey.
ae of a eras Instance of inclined stratification in Warren county, N.
by J. D. Whitney.
On the se ihcieates of the fossil fishes and reptiles of Linton, Ohio; by J. 8S. New-
On the Organization of oe rota ces tee Dr. Weinland.
On Animal Development ; by Lou
On some Euphotides, on pr de felepathie qa by T. Sterry Hunt.
On the Serpentines of the Green Mountains, and some Sf their associates; by T.
un
Wary Hont of Fossil Fish Remains from the Carboniferous limestones and Coal
measures of Illinois; by A. H. Worthen.
Generalities of the Geol ogy of Oregon and Northern California; by J. S. New-
On ‘the Carboniferous limestone of the Poors 2 Valley ; A James Hall.
ae velogical Observations on the ee Ss} ig: of the Mountains of Sonor
hear the Boundary, made under the directio Emory, U. 8. occa: :
by Arthur Scho
Exhibition of Fossil Cetacea from Maine; by A. C. Hamlin.
a Fossil Wood with Poe eg found by Sir W. E. Logan in the Devonian rocks
; Ww.
. On the Agen of the "Gul. Stream in the formation of the Peninsula and Keys
of Florida; by Joseph Leconte. :
a oserations on the ae of the > ap between the Mississippi and the Pa-
¢ Ocean, with a Map;
Review of a Pencion of the recent Geological M Map of the United States, pub-
i P.
jase © Observations on the Coal fields of Illinois ; by R. P. Stevens.
fud-nests of the Tadpole, recent and fossil; by Edward Hitchcock. ‘ie
in and a. “3 the red loam of f Alabama, with a notice of some Joess depos-
; “ie a a
ad by H. J. Coffin.
iaceum nian Petrifctions by ‘egos — sr ker y. e *l cs ak s
b.
Co pnecticut and other Atlantic
J npypler aa ype and W. C. Redfield.
Collections of fossils : He nip a period of ten years in the lime-
mes
us thermal eprings wih fs S. Newberry.
Upper Missouri; by J. rry.
of some Artesian tls of Alabama ; by st Winchell.
Ill. Zithnology.
and.
inl
On the Names of Animals, with reference to Ethnology; by Dr. We
the Relations between Chinese and Indo-Furo pean ; by 8. 8.
448 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
' On the Structure of the Algonquin Language ; by Henry R. Schoolcraft.
Supposed Runic Inscriptions from the Coast of Maine; by A.C. Hamlin.
On the Value of the Physical conformation as an element of ethnological science ;
by Daniel Wilson.
Queries relative to some indications of human instinct, as illustrated by primitive
arts; by Daniel Wilson.
Considerations upon the evidences of the early voyages of the Scandinavians to
this Country, and upon the cosmical myths supposed to relate to America; by A. -
©. Hamlin.
a ee ee
2. The Meteor of July 8th; by W.Sprzi1man.—Since the appear-
ance of the large meteor on the evening of the 8th of July, I have en-
deavored to collect all the information I could respecting it: and as I did
not see it myself, I have had to rely entirely on information obtained from —
others, and was thereby, at first, led into an error both as regards its angle
of altitude, andthe direction in which it was seen from this place. It was
my first impression, (and I so expressed myself verbally, and by letters to
others,) that its first appearance was, at an angle of 35° above the hori-
zon, north-northwest of Columbus. To be more definite in its direc-
tion from this place, I took with a compass both its direction and allti-
tude, as pointed out by Dr. Hopkins who saw it from a favorable position
to observe. From the course pointed ont by Dr. Hopkins, the meteor
he was, and also as seen from Columbus at an angle of 30° above the F
horizon, it must have been at least thirty-six miles high, At Holly Sprin :
I learn that the meteor appeared a little east of south, and at an altitude
of about 35° above the horizon, and as Holly Springs is about forty
:
:
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449
miles from the line, or course of the meteor as above noticed, it would
make it about thirty-two miles high.
Again admitting that a meteor when seen by Prof. Harper, was fifty
miles northeast of his point of observation, and 35° above the horizon, it
must have been about peo miles s high. Taking then the course of
the meteor as indicated by . Harper, as a base line, we may safe]
conclude that it was at least thirty miles high when it first became visible,
As to its distance from the earth at the time of the explosion, I have no
data to found a oe upon. Prof. Harper however, says, “it could
not have been much above the clouds.”
to where ‘this meteorite found a resting place on Terra Firma, after
its countless revolutions around it, for centuries past, would be a difficult
task, unless some one was fortunate enough to have seen or heard it strike
our globe.
We might, however, be aided very much in our search for it, if those
who saw it under favorable circumstances would take the me in which
they saw it, with a compass, and communicate the same to hr
at Oxford, Castes with the altitude above the horizon in which ‘they sa
it, and as near as possible the time that seo vened between its first ped
pearance and the rumbling noise that followed. The writer of this arti-
e
oO
proper to communicate to him, agg ing the meteor under considera-
Be Columiais 5 (Mise) Democr
Columbus, _— 6 a 1856.
tion at Albany, that a has meter filled with sulphuric acid had been
made for the Smithsonian Institution. The objection from its affinity fc for
i. ometric pen s been named Kon wy Mr. N. A.
escription of the species b Mr. Pratt will appear in our ne
5. British ‘hai The Twenty ith medline of the “pritish As-
Sociation was held this year, at Cheltenham, commencing with August
6th. The presidential address at its opening was delivered by Professor
Daubeny, President of the meeting.
merican Geological History.—In connection with the article, page
335, it should have sd stated that the paper was read at the Meeting of
ft American Association at Albany in August last.
1. Oprrvany.—Rev. Dr. Buckland.—Few men have filled a wider space
in public mailer for the = twenty-five years than Dr. Buckland. His
name is intimately associated in the popular mind of this —— with the
Progress of geology. He may not have possessed the natur ag
ments or the ——— nea of many of his ania aba
he ss of spirit, an indomitable energy of purpose, a
- Seniality of a Sy ‘whial rendered him, even amongst men remarkable
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.——-NOV., 1856,
57
450 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
for their gifts, the most remarkable. These qualities made Dr. Buckland
‘ the most prominent of.a band of philosophers who gradually worked
their way in geological science, redeeming it from the puerilities of a
popular hypothesis, and placing it high amongst the physical sciences,
In this great work Buckland was associated with Lyell, De la Beche,
Sedgwick, Murchison, Phillips, and Conybeare.
Although we have now to record the death of Dr. Buckland, which
Oxford.
B.A. in 1803, and was elected a Fellow of his College in 1808. At this
time Oxford was the most unpromising school in the world for natural
science. Nevertheless there were chairs of Botany, Chemistry, and Min-
eralogy to indicate to the student that all human wisdom was not und
up in Classics and Mathematics. The tastes of young Buckland led him
to the study of Mineralogy, and in 1813 we find him appointed to the
successors,
portance of their teach
.
Dr. Buckland’s name will ever be associated in this country with his
discoveries of the remains of animals in the caves of Kirkdale, and other —
, Tiger, Es
Cave at Kirkdale, Yorkshire, in the year 1821.” These discoveries. an
others served as a basis for a work published in 1823, entitled “ Reliqu#@
Diluvianz ; or, Observations on the Organic Remains attesting the Action —
” Altho: z of these remains are
of an Universal Deluge.
tained a universal recognition of the value and im-
.
}
Ce, BY aR ee a oe eee eg ai ae
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451
now accounted for on a different theory, the great value of this work
remains as a record of the first discovery of the remains of animals —
of which most have since disappeared from the world, and thus reveal-
ing
the arrival of man. In addition to the above account of the bones of
mel, near Montpellier, and the bones of bears found in the Grotto of
Osselles, or Quingey, near Besangon.
His contributions to the Proceedings of the Geological Society were
very numerous, and in the first volume of the “Bibliographia Geolo-
gie et Zoologiz,” published by the Ray Society in 1848, we find referen-
ces to sixty-one distinct works and memoirs. Dr. Buckland’s social habits
pe pr ite
and many of the general conclusions arrived at by the author have now
become part and parcel of the great laws of geological scie
nce,
In 1825 Dr. Buckland accepted from his college the living of Stoke
a i a
Morland, of Abingdon. In 1818 he had been elected a Fellow of the
Was twice elected President of that body. He took an active mterest in
the formation of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
and was f those who took the bold step of inviting this body to
hold its second meeting in the University of Oxford. On this occasion
he was President of the Association. From that time to 1848 he was
present at the meetings, and read many of his papers before them.
In 1847 Dr. Buckland was appointed a Trustee of the British Museum,
: _ and took an active part in the development of that department more es-
pecially devoted to Geology and Paleontology. He also seconded, to
the Ssasnt of his power, ah efforts of Sir Henry De la Beche to estab-
lish the Museum of Economic Geology, which is now, in conjunction
for the public to the Monuments in Westminster Abbey. He joined the
452 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
ranks of sanitary reformers, and brought his great knowledge of geology
fans on questions of water supply, sewerage, and other health ques-
Dr. Buckland seems not to have devoted himself to questions of
soctaninsl theolo. His views on this subject are chiefly contained in
the Bridgewater - Treatise and the “ Vindicize.” Among the list of pub-
lished works we find one sermon, and that devoted . m4 homes of death:
it was published at Oxford in 1839.—Ath., Aug. 2 6.
8. Geology of the Pacific and other regions iain by the U. S. Ea-
ploring Expedition under C. Wilkes, U. S. N., in the years 1838-18425
by James D. Dana, Geologist of the Expedition. —This Report consists of
a quarto volume of text of 750 pages, illustrated by several maps and nu-
merous wood cuts, and a folio atlas of 21 plates. It treats of the Strue-
ations of New South Walee and of the oe rocks of Orego
Only 200 copies of this Government Report have hitherto been printed.
The author proposes to have 250 copies published for the benefit of those
who are interested in the subjects. The copies will be furnished to sub-
scribers for $12.00, ~ ‘ea bound in cloth, the payment to be made on
delivery. A copy w ently sold in New York City for $40.00.
Should the sbscription list reach 500, the edition would be increased
accordingly, and the e price reduced to $10 .00. oe satin if eodekaliine
will be ready for delivery in the course of the coming yea
Any person desiring one or more copies, - requested to widens the au-
or. n, October Ist, 1856.
9. A Chronological Table of Cyclonic seid have occured
in a West Indies and in the North Atlantic from 1493 to — with
a Bibliographical List of Authorities; by Axpris Pory, Esqr.,
van ee to _ sayy ‘Association by Dr. Shaw. Printed
by Clowes and Sons, London, pp.
This pamphle et. does aa to os zeal and research of Mr. Poey. It
d.
r of hurricanes cited by Mr. Poey as having occurred i in
the West Indies and Atlantic a ~ monthly distribution of nis
hundred and fifty-five was as follows,
Mont!is. No. of ame < pS: No. of a
ae - . es July, - + P «an
ebruary, — - 7 as Augcus “ Sie,
March, Side ott ale Pah - Z
i a re - 6 October, -
May, - - - «i § November, - .-
June, . - - ~ 10 December, - -
Total,
Mr. Pedy considers his — as only a first to facilitate
on this important subject é - sft
‘
eee ee
«
ig
ah a) pte og ioe.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 453
and Devonian Formations of the United States, and 6 me of
inct Mammalia ; by Joseru Lety, —From the Journ. Acad
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 12 pp. 4to, with 3 plates.—The Species of Fishes
ort Gibson, a gigantic fish related to Carcharodon,
a fragment of the jaw of which is 6 inches long; Oracanthus Sige a
Leidy, from ip pie ene "cig i from Blair Co., 0-
loptychius Americanus, Leidy, a Co., hint Decoxeatia
(eidy) nitidus, same ee ality as last . Apedodus pr scus, L., Columbia
.y Pa.—The Mammals, are Camelops Kansanus, (Let rom the Terri-
ansas ; Can. is primevus, from the ban the Ohio river a
short distance below Evansville, Indiana, senosintod with Megalony yx Jef-
Tapirus Haysii j— Ursus amplidens, L., from a ravine near Natchez,
Mississi pp, occurring with Hguus Americanus, Cervus Virginianus fossilis,
Mastodon, Megalonyx, Mylodon, Ereptodon ; Ursus Americanus fossilis,
from near 5 tchez ; Procyon priscus, LeConte, from Galena, Illinois.
L.
by J. 2 R.S.
sity College, London, and N. M. Ferris, M.A., Fellow of Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge; assisted a. G. G. Sroxes , M.A., F.R.S., Luca-
sian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambri idge, A. Cay-
LEY. F.R.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, ame ee and M.
Hunurrs, Corresponding Editor of Paris; 8vo. London: John W. Parker
_ and Son, West Strand; 5s. each number. The Bi number of this Math-
ematical igeiesttof Journal, was issued in April, 1855. The character of
the work may be inferred from a. distinguished names constituting its
board of Editors, Each number contains.96 pages octavo, and is occu-
pied with papers 2 both in pure ae eRe ane. the applications of math-
12. Fossils of South Carolina ; bee! M. toes ey and F.S. Howes, 4to.
1856 ;
aad The plates are ako, fine. They represent the species Peo-
ten septenarius, Mytilus incrassatus, M. inflatus, Arca hians, A. incile,
A. coelata, A..centenaria, A. rustica, A. ionomem oe improcera, A. trans-
versa, A. scalaris, A. equicostata, A, incongrua, A. pexa’
13. Abhandlun ngen a Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Galaga Reichsan-
stalt, Il, Band.—4to, with 78 lithographic plates. Wien.—This splen-
did volume issued by the Royal Geol ogical Bociety at Vienna, (1855),
nitz in Bohemia ; also.a memoir by Dr n the Fossil Flora
(Tertiary) of Siebenburg The third paper by von Ettingshausen, con
tains among its 29 plates representations of some f nificent
er
Lepidodendra in full ran and in one, of the L. Sternbergit, the linear
or acicular leaves are over a foot long, and form a dense mass about a
branch 14 inches thick, the whole two feet in length.
BS
14. Geognostiche Darstellung der Steinkohlen-formation in Sachsen mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Rothliegenden, von Hanns Bruno Get-
454 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Leipzig, 1856. Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann.—We recently noticed
the beautiful work of Dr. Geinitz on the Fossil Plants of the Coal forma-
tion of Saxony. In the work just issued, the author treats of the rocks
and coal beds. He first describes the various known kinds of coal from
lignite to anthracite and graphite and their modes of occurrence. Next
he treats of the Coal formation of the Erzgebirg Basin; (1,) the Hai-
nich-Ebersdorf Coal formation, or the Saxon culm-coal ; (2,) the produe-
tive coal beds of the vicinity of Zwickau ; (3,) the Permian with the in-
cluded eruptive rocks, overlying the coal measures of Zwickau; (4,) om
up in a following chapter the anthracite region of the Upper Eragebirg.
measures of the different regions, and many facts bearing on their origin
and history. The Permian is shown to be essentially a part of the Palzo-
zoic, related to the Carboniferous Period, rather than to the Triassic.
15. Das normal Verhdltniss der chemischen und morphologischen Pro-
portionen, von Avot¥ Zeisine. 112 pp. 8vo. Leipzig. Rudolf Weigel.—
© Ged¢ yewmerget.—The idea of simple mathematical proportions in nature
is exciting much attention and research. M. Zeising in this work endeavors
4 rs 1:2:3:5:8:13:21: 384, ete. which are known
to occur in the arrangement of the leaves of plants, through the human
figure, animal and vegetable structure, physiology, musical harmony, the
planetary system, the earth’s features, architecture and chemistry. And
he further aims to reduce it to a still simpler form.
He divides 1000 into two parts, in such a way that the Jarger is a
mean between the smaller and the whole, which gives 1000: 61 8.0339 :
381-9660. This series continued, by simple proportion, making the first
to the second, as the second to the third, the third to the fourth and so on:
—gives 1000 : 618-03... :381°96... : 236-06... : 145°89...: 90°16...
the body (B), and of the upper (C), and states the ratio, A: B: C
618°0:381°9. Again, for the ratio of the whole lower part (A), the upper
Pi hie ages io A: B: C=6180 :3810%
also for the upper part of the body (A), and its two parts
the chest (B), and the hae (cy, the ratio re" ; C==381'9: 2360:
145°9.—In music, the ratios 1:2: 3:5: 8, are given by the succession of ;
tones C: C (octave): G:E:C (2nd octave).—1 : 2 is the octave; 2: 3the
fifth ; 3:5 major sixth or minor third transposed; 5:8 minor sixth, oF
fee
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 455
or the proportion of land and water on the globe, Rigaud deduced the
ag 100 ; 270, o Humboldt, the ration 100:280; and this corres-
ponds with 3? : 5? which equals 9 : 25 or 100: 277. The land of the
merican stilts equals 10,606,400 sq. m., and that of the other ang
isphere, 27,274,000 sq. m. the ratio is 1: 2°57 which equals 5?:
These are a few examples from the work.
16. Principles of Chemistry, embracing the most recent discoveries in
the Science, and the outlines of its application to Agriculture and the Arts,
Illustrated by numerous experiments newly adapted to the simplest appa-
ra y Joun A. Porrer, M.A,, M. rof. Agric. and a Chem.
in Yale College. 480 pp.12mo, New York, 1856. A. 8. Barnes & Co.
Ti the preparation of this text-book, Prof. Porter has aimed at a clear,
imple and practical presentatiun of the princi iples of Chemistry, not over-
loaded with details, and with such experimental illustrations as ma
repeated with simple means, small expense, and little previous knowledge.
The plan is well carried out, and the work is an excellent one for classes
in ges
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. vi1.—U,. S. Naval
Sidenanical Expedition, vol. 1 oe ese works were not received in time
for a notice in this number
B. Atvorp : The Tangencies of Circles and of angie: by Benjamin rein awe
U.S, A—Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 16 pp. 4to, bears 9 plat
~ tocoty ery egterne ; — sien
pus, ved Joh. Japetus Sm. Steenstrup. 32 A ® with 2 plates. Kjobenhavn. 1856.
Ninth Annual Report of the Regents of th a aiverty of the State of New York
on the ee ot soa atl thereto. of Natural Histo ed and the Historical and
here
Reptiles occurring near hiladetphia ’ Hallowell
spathic iron of the West side of Chesapeake bay, led Baltimore ore; ith.
, On four new species of Exotic nes ; J. Lea, escriptions of
ee Myriapoda ; A. Sager.—p. 109, Description of thirteen new species of a
Peristomata ; J. Lea.—p. 111, Descriptions of fossils from the Tertiary of the Up
Ld . . Mee
with remarks on the Geo ology ; F. V. Hayden, M. D—
126, Ceratites Americanus, Prof. L. Harper—p. 128, Examination of Meteoric [ron
m Xiquipileo, Mexico; W. J. Pe a: ee! Description n of two new species of
Urodeles from sient irk E. Hallowe D.—p. 131, Contributions to the Ichthy-
1 h ted States pon oped n the Museum of
ology of the West am Cast of the nied tate ag ae
t.
‘ rimented on by Dr. Be
i N anny eae eee i Kjébenhayn.
lige Meddelelser fra we: rss tal ay ng with “he
vas , Ss H f° University 4 ON 0. 2. F. Didric —
es; A. S, Ocrsted. —_— of the ear ea a 7. Th. gon ro 1 local
Sue >of N New York ; . a, gh—On the
id
ties of Graphite and Eupyrchroite in = tha
Convolvulacese from Guinea in the Uni we arr
to C. A. Ke eissw
Der Jer Pithnaniacbs Code Codex Juvenals, Erster Theil. Kritisch-exegetische Abhandlung,
von Dr. A. HAcxermasn, Gymnasialle rn 40 pp. 4to. Greisswald, 1856. T. oe v0
Index Scholarum in Universitate Litteraria et er per semestre zest
Anni mptocotvi, a Die Mensis Afrilis habendaru . Kunike.
De Gravidatate Extra-uterina, accedit ee memorande cujusdam Gravidi-
rnard. Guil. Sommer; 4to,
Mémoire sur une s ilathibde N ouvelle "de 5 Tianfomation sent serena dans le
Plan et dans |’ , av lication aux Li urfaces _
Guptsa, ver Medeweos Dower: De: Sei or Muth, Prof, de Math. & Paris. (eat
ean nape a 8 pp.8vo. Greifswald, 1856 Kunike,
Sie lowers of
ae eee
INDEX OF VOLUME XXII.
A.
Acad, Nat. Sci., Philad., Proceedings of, 152,
455.
oS Lot bg of, =
Acetylamin, Natenson
Acid, Newel
‘ormic, ‘fen carbonic, 403,
ee erie hong in, ‘as
A ricnltural Exhibition, Paris, 264,
1
403.
American Association or de eilokies ment
of Science, notice of Albany meeting, 159.
American cee Soc., Philad., Proceed-
ings o
Animal sonar composition of, 9.
Antimony, —— t of, 107.
Arago’s works noticed, 269,
teen fornace ucts, 248,
strono
Artronomiea Ouiervatag of Harvard, an-
nals
Atomic equivalent of Antimon
Atomic weight uf Lithium, M
B.
Bailey, J. W, Soundings in the sea of
Kamtschatka, |
. 107.
et, 349.
and, 282.
nae 4 ‘ wie sulpharie acid, 449,
Bartlett, G., = limate of California, 291.
Bessemer’ —. ~ making iron, 406.
u’s geological map, 383.
lowpipe Aways, Manual of, by W. Elder-
oat noticed, 303.
— n Sue. Nat. Hist., Proceedings of, 152,
Botany of Madeira, — on, 134,
Dragon-tree of Oro ava, 135.
Embryo in Plants, 133
three cay ferns fromm California and
Oregon aM Eaton
Potats of New ‘ietieg and Texas,
Notes on States, Gray,
Statistics of the Flora yes Northern!)
Botany, notices of works, Linnean Soci
134; = ner, 135 ; — 137, 436 ;
chaux : De olle, er Baie
ddell,
haces from art, of xehe t, 39
bank, J. S., on the Spongiadly 415,
i n fond, use of, 104.
Br tish Association, 4 449,
Buckland, obituary of, 44 449
Building material, on testing, J. Henry, 30.
a
| California, pegs ee ae a) 110.
w fern
mollu
Cantonit, Pratt, 4
Car! = acid, for on acid = 403.
‘entemodon, fussil reptile, 1
Chalk, spongeous o igi of siliceous bodies
fee
Chemical ear of Ronalds and Rich-
ardson, noticed
Chlorine Laethnaicen of by titrition, 404.
Chronometers, |
Classification o a, 14. agi
Clausius, R., application of the me tic! 30,
theory of heat to the Steam Engine,
a of California, a 291.
08 pe neral, in Peru,
Cool” - its Topography, by J. P. Lesley,
notie
Coal formation of Saxony, Geinitz om
noticed,
se mentite fossils 0}
', eruption at Hawaii, 240 267.
Sappoeveirg for —— substitute for,
Corals from rolina, , 389.
Crocoiles, fossil ‘of Nebraska, 120.
of, a Fossil.
Agoapiny os,
Rag 2 . Fee aprtgayg of Ss. Amer-
iacere,
pea-nut, 435,
Crainenn, a a fro ae
paper pho otugraphic pro
oy
Saye oat cana of, J. D. Dan vated
reference to pa on Paleozoic biv
Bniomonn
Cume,
Antarctic #008 :
j
eh ae
:
:
_ Elderhorst’s Blowpipe. ra noticed, 303.
IND
a, J. D., Classification of Crustac oe a,
Plan
eal History,
ee en of Geological Report
Darlington, notice of -Gray’s Manual of
Botany
DeCandolie 8 Geographical Botany, noticed,
Deville, = oe high fi 105.
Neo-macropia, 30
Dia Ae ahinegre
a among solutions, Gladstone,
Dinornis, new species of, Omen, 138.
Dragon-tree of Orotava, 135.
Drift phenomena, cause of, J. D. Dana, 325.
Dudley Observatory, 442.
Earth, physical structure of, of oD Dan 416.
EX, 457
| Fo pe Balog s near Boston, Rogers, 296.
rals (Silurian) from N. Carolina, Em-
Flies and —_-* notice of a paper
J, Leidy on, 4
fe South ¢ arolna, by Tuomey and
Holes noticed, 453
al plants, Bohemia, pee
Pa tees oi¢ star-fishes, Sal,
—, “(Pier rygo'
Salter,
of Forte beds of the Upper Ludlow,
Murchison, 415
r, 415.
tus) a Scotland,
ammal of the coer Eh ld slate, 419.
Dic eer of 20,
shells, new ‘aul PNebra ‘ita, 423.
Furnace cryataltine products,
hea producing intense, Deville,
105. ;
G
Galileo, tribute to, E. Everett, 443. i
Galvanic Battery, new kind se 102,
Gar pikes, remarks on young, 440.
obs ervations on origin 0 J,
305,
Earthquakes in California, J. B. Trask, 110.
Earthq ake at New Zealand, 128.
Eaton. D.C ; th
, origin of Greensand, 282.
Eights, J., \sopod Crustacean from the Ant-
arctic,
Electricity, atmos
~— sire oe lism, * substitute for copper
lic
Recto: phy sieiee’, "het
erocrinus, Yandell ani ' Shura Mem
Elevation of Mcdntnine, remark n Elie
Beaumont’s theory, J.D. Dana
Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist. a0 Proceedings of “152.
Entomostraca, see
Equivalent, se
Essex Institute, Parenting: of, 152.
a and its ho
Eyes, color blindness in, 7' 143.
ree new ferns of California,
Geo
mologues, new method for, ||
y, noticed,
454. ‘
Geographical discoveries in Africa, 116.
CaaS raphy of plants, DeCandolle on, noticed,
gical Report on Tennessee, by J. M.
> ‘ord, notice $29,
f J. Marcou, reviewed, W. P.
higtacy of Americ J. D. Dana, 305, 335.
Report of J. D. Dana, propaled teprint
°
Bo |
ao
ctions, Vienna, 453.
Geology, sandstone of Connestient valley,
determinati = of age, fro ssil fishes, ¢ 397.
marks on ota o of, 357,»
origin of verre of chalk from sponges,
5.
physical structure of the earth, Hennes-
: ow rocks, Murchison, 418.
A Lad a ae mammal, Owen, 419.
Tertiary of Nebraska and’ thé north,
eek and Hayden, 423.
Eu aki information to students visiting, 146.
yndall, 1
F
Fecula of the Horse-chestnut, 264.
Fishes, fossil, from eae 118,
Leidy,
Fluorids, researches on, 4
Foote, Elisha, heat in ae - rays,
ne circumstances _—c heat in
Dvoipetnw in Ns Pa..
_ Lea, 123.
Foraminiferous origin of Greensand, Bailey,
Formic acid from arbonic acid
— bag of re filam pons 122,
and fishes from
nS hn , E. Hitch-
nae , species gli M
Nebraska, Paget,
SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXII, NO. 66.—NOV., 1856.
58
e Fossil.
Gibbs, Wat chemical abstracts,
Geotony 105, 400.
illespie on on land surveying, n
one,
oticed,
J. H, influence of what ‘radiation
ants, 49.
on dichromatic phenomena among solu-
4
ions,
Glyptunotus, from th
ray, A, botanical notices, 1
eens tic, 391.
Gra 34, 284
statistics of flora of no
204.
phen U, States,
on potato of New Mexico and Toran 5e
Mat call of Botany, noticed, Darlington,
4
Greenrand,
in of, Bailey, 280.
inks Is Jand, composition, A.8
Ks U, Shepard, 96.
. Hayes, 300.
Gulick, L. H 7 ides a , sant
M, Gunpowder. pressure of fire
bridge,
Guano
, 142.
WE. Wood-
458 INDEX,
|\Marcou’s Geological map, reviewed, W. P.
Blake, 333.
Hailstorm i in N. Carolin ooh Mi rtius, Flora Brasiliensis, noticed, 436.
Hawaii, eruption at, T’ Coa Sn Matteucci, experiments in e electro-physiology,
ille, 105
cific, of sorne elemen oe Racoals 103. Max and Hi ryden, era of Nebraska, 423.
vban’ s rays, Elisha Foote, 377. Meteor of July Sth, 4
circumstances affecting, Eunice Moveonic iron ot ee ia, 271.
1 f Good {Hope, 272.
on theo rem of equivalence of work and, of Xiqnipileo, W. J. Taylor, 374.
Pong a ei ae. bose buling material, 20. stone of Mezd-Madaras, 272 pa
enry, J., on testing ‘
Herrick, | E. Gq shooting stars of dion aa, oder sy gar f France, ;
Hippvie ai, 102 Mis anal — hs ‘ae ae
Hitchcock, Ex “powlder from drift of Amherst,| !!3nite y Ramada ,
pre a Alunoge
Hiphouh, I, By ee es fossil shell of the Alvite of Norwa 3 249
a — ot Pp Andalusite, analyses, 249.
eo “eyelonie, by A. bis, niet Anglesite af Sardinia, angles, 249.
— f oo ite, of New Jersey, 249.
Aragonite (Schaumkalk), 249,
I Ss
: a ad ’ , sruphyliive, a mica,
ead 1 Bears ee tac cco ta of aL a o50." 250.
Bailey, innite 0
Woctes Matercoete tuticed 2a hs oracite of Btasafert, 250.
Inundations in : i negli ae
Todine, crystalline form of, 2 ragite o y, 250.
fron, malleable, and steel, cea 8 pro- reunnerite (Teaioclin}, 251.
cess fur, 406 alcite, 251.
ores of Azoic System, J. D. Whitney, 33 arnallite of rea 251.
Isthmus of Koes, level &c. of, 273. ee
J
John from Uniorc
ton, s re ee Califor. Chrysolite, in serpentine, 251.
K Conisionite and Heddlite, 252.
opiapite, analysis, :
Kamtschatka, ae off, Bailey, 1. etabiis, of yeie, $58 252.
Kopp, specific volume of nitrogen compounds, ryolite, Greenland, 252.
103. Cyanochrome, Vesuvins, 252.
yanosite, Vesuv: vio mie 258.
ke Ooroomiah, waters of, 276. See an ies of, 25
Tea, fs fossil reptiles dis 122. ial log:
pe “ fi of soda, 99 itiennd, ‘Kohinoo, 273.
at de fossil re tile $ .| lomite
dy. J Kossil reptiles and fishes from Ne- renoysite, C. Heusser, 253.
— hme ‘Carboniferous fishes, &c., no
Korine: enol fish, 1 Epsomite in Tennessee, 253.
Lesivy’s “3 of Coal and its Topography,|| Erubescite, in i i
notice phere glassy, 2 254.
Level, chugs of, at int - a 126|| Feldspa + Eipekolien and Weissigite),
changes Ne enguwnite e 254.
Light, influence of, ‘= atid 2 , or
wave lengths of = reislebenite, .
Eisenlohr, ga mos\ pre rays) cy active, ' as :
Linugean Soc., Proceedings, 134. Galena, snpersalphorett + 299. i
Lithiuin, atomic wei ht off 1 Mallet, 349. Garnet, t, green, of Norway, 259. ;
Boot ti obituary, 301. P te te, 255 > “i :
nges in templ ilbertite, LE. Zschau, * a
M of Renae, Glaserite at Vesuvius, 255. _
Glaubapatite, Shepard, 256,
gyre eens on wcapen of, 134. Guano minerals,
work on by '. V. Wollas. Gypsum, 256.
oe i wie a — te, 256. a
oJ. W. ona itie mineral from the em atite, at Vesnvi
Isle of Skye, 179. Hitchcockite, 956..."
) atomic ith alotee “ao 349, Hornblende, "257.
e Iron, meteoric, 27 374.
Manteil's + Medals" of Creation, 150, Lanthanite, 257. naga.
MINER ee
wong nativ
Leucite of Vesuviny et * ha
I oor
I er, 258.
J sepivikel, ‘Beh shes 253.
Monazite, 262.
Nitre, in ‘Tennessee, 258,
nit oe gts 253,
Ozocerite, Glocker , 253
icromer rid, at Vesuvi:
r
rals, 96.
yromelane, Misourd 96. 259.
yroscle erite e of Snarum, 259.
¢, 375,
uariz in capilla ay gabe etc., 259,
uic ksilver t in drift deposits, ts, 259,
Le
pi
=~ 7%
=
3
iP
=
dite
erpentine of Rox xbnry, Ct., 260.
ilver, native, at Cheshire, Ct., nite
mithsonile. tr ringer ,
S|
Binnie. Bischo of, 260.
Staurot tide, atic 260.
Stibnite, 26
Stilbite ( Bypottona. 179, 261.
Stlpnomelane, Glocker, 261.
Tanta oges, 26
Thenardite of Vesuvius, 261
Tritomite, analysis, 261,
Tscheffkin 1
a mes 261
e, Forbes, 262.
poke of "Carinthia, 262.
Vivianite, 2 262.
Voigtite, E. E. Schmid, 262.
Vilkuerite, oo , 263.
Wittichite
cf) ae 263,
Xenotime, 263.
Teititie anata from the Isle of Skye,
Mallet, 179.
Zincite, 263.
inerals, artificial furnace products, 248.
Mineralo: "By . Supplem ment to Dana's, 246.
list o w works, 246
Missisvipps | Riv ~ egees of closing and open-
ing, T'S. P, v, 149
Moon, Secchi ei deatsing > of, 265.
Murchison, etter on the Museum of Red
ROE,
of Practical Geology. Qa2.
s, composition of, Valenciennes, 9.
N
Nebraska fossils, 118, 423.
€0-macropia, 3J1.
INDEX,
mposed, (Xanthitane,) 260.
459
New South Shetlands, crustacean from, and
remarks on,
|New Zea’ land, soap got of mead = 128.
inornis oO
taining mitrogen 108,
No. rth Ganolitie, bi hailstorm in, 298.
Oo
bees Ee: 449.
cke,
_ Binet,
Observatory at I — 265,
nals” of, 265.
br anaigee
af University 7 Mississippi, 290.
Oregon, new ferns, D. C. Eaton, 138.
Owen, on a new Vinornis, 133.
Ozone, on atmos wei Scoutetten, 140.
W. B. 8, 141.
Andrews, 403.
P
Spenag rns oo seeeile, 118,
Paris, Geog cal society, 148.
Parvin, 7 res: pe and opening of Mis
SIss
. a J. G., obituary of, ‘150.
Phosograp : X paper, Ww.
wokes,
Picsse, G. W. S., Art of Perfumery, by,
Leti e 140,
annie, "1h bs (2), 441.
Woy: ine (41), Isis
s, De Candolle’s Geography of, noticed,
"Embeye of, 432.
farther, Botan
Polythalamian, see Pore niferous.
Po reelain, ager cture of aie, 102.
Posidonia Pa,
dors wild in New Mexico and Texas, 234.
Proportions in nature,
oT ony iss — of Pure Mathematics
Railroad to Fira * gad canton for, 67.
atios in natnre,
jel W. C., ‘Reiation we ge fishes to
ewark sandstone,
tend, Specific heat of some Tilomeeta Ih
|Reptiles, fossil, from? raska, 118.
one ae hares 22.
bid flaods, France
scky Mis., aeenooo ‘for railroad across,
a
460 : INDEX.
Trask, J. B., earthquakes in California, 110,
oe from near Boston, W. B. Rogers,
ers, W. B., on ozone, 141.
Trlobites ‘from near ‘Bost ston, 296.
Ronalds and Richardson's Chemical Tech-
ter ly notice
Ruhmkorff’s a apparatus, effects with, 268.
son , fro braska, 120.
Troadon, fossil vente 19;
urkey, new, of Mexico, 139.
. M., on the ee Tetradium, 286. U
Scacchi, Vesuvian one 246 an d beyond U. States, statistics of Flora of Northern, A.
t Gray, 204
fossil fishes of, W. C. Redfiel
called Newark pe by
Vienna Geological transactions, 453,
W.C. Redfield, 357,
Dana %
egy of Southern Ita ys Foy ville, pg
Volcano, eruption of Hew n, Coan, 240.
Voltaic, see Galvanic
w
, J. C., obituary of, 151.
Waters of the Dead Se ea, 301. por
of the Caspian, density °
ra yell, 126, in the Desert of Sahara, 301.
epar. now ie 96. | of Deldvee river, H. Wurtz , 124, 301.
pe ee August, 1 ve 290. Jake Ooroomiah, 276. ee,
e roo cific gravity, eic., ut several salt,
Spt ~ leg apparatus, Eckfeldt and Du-|| weddell’s Chloris Andina, noticed, 437.
an, W , meteor of July 8,448,
Sponges,
Spongeous origin of siliceous bodies of chalk, Woodbri
Sola, g, manafveture of, ee myrocens 99
Siar-fishes, os simathy ee, 415. ‘
Steam engine, R. Clausius on, 180,’ 364.
153.
‘Works, Bench h, noticed, 269.
Botanical, see Botan
‘Wurtz on ether and its homologues, 107.
Wurtz, H., on w: rater of Delatare,
lereoscopic experiment, Lugeol,’
Stude ting Ex Eorepertatens 6
“ ag y infor 146, ;
Bs level vel and characer of rere Bg Yandell, Eleutherocrinus, 120.
ali
‘Sans rays, heat in, 377, 388
|| Zeising, A., work by, noticed, 454.
||Zoology, see Toyuicess , Insecta, Fossil.
ee value of a genus and species in, Wollas-
a ’W. J, meteorie iron: of Xiquipileo, 287,
young of gar-pikes
mollusks of Colitarnte coast, P:C Carper
a new turkey of Mexico, 139.
a new Dinornis, 138.
Telescope, equatorial, Porro, 103,
'Tetradiu mM. M. Safford on on, 236.
Thom inoon, EF , obituary, 44,
Tides at Pona nape, Carolines, 142,
ES Se ae, a Re eg eee ee oe
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@
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Vik St3e
Clypl WANS GAT CE
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—
THK WORLD
on
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MERCATO
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TaN ee
Enderby’s Laud |
——
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PRICHARD AND NORRIS,
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN:
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ENQUIRIES INTO THE a. INFLUENCES OF tes jae ee AGENCIES ON +t
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__ BERNARD AND CHL HUE ITE,
8S ILLUSTRATED MANUAL OF :
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STUDENT'S
ROUS ORIGINAL COLORED misono 90 Bs
NGRAVINGS,
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GEOLOGY
OF THE
PACIFIC AND OTHER REGIONS
VISITED BY THE
dl. S. Exploring Expedition under C. Wilkes, W. S. A.,
IN THE YEARS 1838—1842,
By JAMES D. DANA,
GEOLOGIST OF THE EXPEDITION,
—_——_+99———
Turis Report consists of a quarto volume of text of 750 pages, illus-
trated by several maps and numerous wood cuts, and a folio atlas of 21
plates. It treats of the Structure, Growth, and Distribution of Coral
Reefs and Islands ; of the Geology of the Sandwich Islands; the Society
Islands; the Feejees; the Navigators ; of the Phenomena of Volcanic
Action; Changes of level in the Pacific, and origin of the general
foatnres of the Globe; of the Geology of New Zealand, Chili, Peru
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The folio atlas contains figures of fossils of the Coal and Saletioe
formations of New South Wales, and of the Tertiary rocks of Oregon.
Only 200 copies of this Government Report have hitherto been
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benefit of those who are interested in the subjects. The copies will
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